Mehul Patel, P. Bhardwaj, D. Saxena, N. Joshi, Nitesh Kumar, Kuldeep Singh, A. Gaidhane, Q. Zahiruddin, Y. Jain
Abstract Public Health News Appraisal (PHNA) is a systematic process and an important skill to be mastered by public health trainees by which the strengths, weaknesses, and validity of a news article can be identified. This process helps trainees to identify usefulness of news, recognize any potential for bias, and ascertain whether the news is trustworthy. Trainees can assess whether the news article successfully communicates the intended message to reader. PHNA checklist with 18 questions was designed to help students to achieve this objective. Responses of most of the questions in this checklist are in the form of yes, no, and can’t tell. The articles can be categorized and analyzed based on the comparative PHNA score.
{"title":"Public Health News Appraisal: An Approach to Content Analysis of News Article on Public Health","authors":"Mehul Patel, P. Bhardwaj, D. Saxena, N. Joshi, Nitesh Kumar, Kuldeep Singh, A. Gaidhane, Q. Zahiruddin, Y. Jain","doi":"10.1055/S-0041-1730126","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/S-0041-1730126","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Public Health News Appraisal (PHNA) is a systematic process and an important skill to be mastered by public health trainees by which the strengths, weaknesses, and validity of a news article can be identified. This process helps trainees to identify usefulness of news, recognize any potential for bias, and ascertain whether the news is trustworthy. Trainees can assess whether the news article successfully communicates the intended message to reader. PHNA checklist with 18 questions was designed to help students to achieve this objective. Responses of most of the questions in this checklist are in the form of yes, no, and can’t tell. The articles can be categorized and analyzed based on the comparative PHNA score.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/S-0041-1730126","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49481342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A. Sinha, Praveen Sharma, K. Shukla, Dr Prasenjit Mitra, S. Misra
Abstract Objectives The aim of this study is to analyze the current scenario in the diagnostic modalities for prostate cancer. Materials and Methods We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate for relevant data. Articles published in the last 10 years were taken into consideration. The role of long noncoding RNA and gene fusion products in the context of prostate cancer was reviewed, which included their roles in diagnosis, prognosis, and assessment of response to therapy. Results Several long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA) have been isolated and have been shown to be useful in diagnosing and prognosticating prostate cancer. We have also looked into the role of TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion in prostate carcinoma diagnosis. These molecular parameters have been looked into due to the fact that the current parameters in use such as prostate-specific antigen have several drawbacks that limit their potential.
{"title":"Current Trends in Prevalence and Role of Long Noncoding RNA and Gene Fusion in Prostate Cancer: An Overview","authors":"A. Sinha, Praveen Sharma, K. Shukla, Dr Prasenjit Mitra, S. Misra","doi":"10.1055/s-0041-1729780","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1729780","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Objectives The aim of this study is to analyze the current scenario in the diagnostic modalities for prostate cancer. Materials and Methods We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate for relevant data. Articles published in the last 10 years were taken into consideration. The role of long noncoding RNA and gene fusion products in the context of prostate cancer was reviewed, which included their roles in diagnosis, prognosis, and assessment of response to therapy. Results Several long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA) have been isolated and have been shown to be useful in diagnosing and prognosticating prostate cancer. We have also looked into the role of TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion in prostate carcinoma diagnosis. These molecular parameters have been looked into due to the fact that the current parameters in use such as prostate-specific antigen have several drawbacks that limit their potential.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0041-1729780","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48267796","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Problems and Ways to Improve the Quality of Medical Research in India","authors":"P. Chaudhari, K. Dhingra","doi":"10.1055/S-0041-1729773","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/S-0041-1729773","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/S-0041-1729773","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48112846","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
K. Madhusudhan, D. Srivastava, K. Garg, N. Khandelwal
Abstract The Coronavirus disease 2019, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has evolved into a pandemic and has affected more than 130 million people globally to date and continues to infect more. The disease primarily involves the respiratory system and manifests as fever, dry cough, dyspnea, and myalgia. Nearly half of the infected patients may be asymptomatic. The real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) performed on the blood or respiratory samples is the diagnostic test with high accuracy. Although imaging with CT is not routinely indicated in this disease, this modality may provide a quick answer and assist in making a diagnosis in certain situations. In addition, imaging with CT also aids in evaluating the progress of the disease and in prognostication. A thorough knowledge of the common findings on the CT scan helps a radiologist in suggesting a diagnosis when it is performed in unsuspected patients. In this review, we describe the common and uncommon chest findings of COVID-19 on the CT scan.
{"title":"Computed Tomography of the Chest in COVID-19: A Pictorial Review of Indian Patients","authors":"K. Madhusudhan, D. Srivastava, K. Garg, N. Khandelwal","doi":"10.1055/s-0041-1728973","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1728973","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The Coronavirus disease 2019, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has evolved into a pandemic and has affected more than 130 million people globally to date and continues to infect more. The disease primarily involves the respiratory system and manifests as fever, dry cough, dyspnea, and myalgia. Nearly half of the infected patients may be asymptomatic. The real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) performed on the blood or respiratory samples is the diagnostic test with high accuracy. Although imaging with CT is not routinely indicated in this disease, this modality may provide a quick answer and assist in making a diagnosis in certain situations. In addition, imaging with CT also aids in evaluating the progress of the disease and in prognostication. A thorough knowledge of the common findings on the CT scan helps a radiologist in suggesting a diagnosis when it is performed in unsuspected patients. In this review, we describe the common and uncommon chest findings of COVID-19 on the CT scan.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0041-1728973","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46314983","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract Introduction Surgical site infection (SSI) is the commonest preventable health care–associated infection among postoperative cases. Several guidelines are available for surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis (SAP) and other measures which prevent SSI. National Center for Disease Control (NCDC), India, has also provided a guideline for prevention of SSI in 2016. In this study we have compared the NCDC, India, guideline with WHO (World health organization) and American Society of Health System Pharmacists (ASHP) guidelines. The timing of antimicrobial agent administration is the only parameter which is included in all the three guidelines. As per NCDC and ASHP it should be within 60 minutes of incision while as per WHO it is within 120 minutes of incision. Materials and Methods This was a prospective observational study—104 patients undergoing surgery in general surgical ward between January 2016 and June 2017 were included in this study. The NCDC guideline was compared with WHO and ASHP guidelines. Real data comparison was done for those parameters which were included in all the three guidelines. Statistical Analysis Data were analyzed using descriptive methods and chi-square test. Results None of the patients in our study received SAP within 60 minutes of incision. In 70% cases it was administered within 2 hours of incision and in the remaining 30% it was administered after more than 2 hours. There was no significant difference in the incidence of SSI among these two groups. Conclusion NCDC SAP guideline helps in rational use of antimicrobials. Increasing the duration for SAP may be added in the NCDC guidelines. Inclusion of certain additional parameters like weight-based doses and consideration for other comorbidities will help in patient- and procedure-specific SAP. Antimicrobial stewardship should be encouraged in all the hospitals and should follow local antimicrobial resistance pattern. This will assist in therapy decision, policy making, and evidence-based treatment.
{"title":"Surgical Antimicrobial Prophylaxis—Where Do We Stand?","authors":"A. Jha, Manju R. Agrawal, Rajesh Hishikar, H. Jha","doi":"10.1055/s-0041-1728972","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1728972","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Introduction Surgical site infection (SSI) is the commonest preventable health care–associated infection among postoperative cases. Several guidelines are available for surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis (SAP) and other measures which prevent SSI. National Center for Disease Control (NCDC), India, has also provided a guideline for prevention of SSI in 2016. In this study we have compared the NCDC, India, guideline with WHO (World health organization) and American Society of Health System Pharmacists (ASHP) guidelines. The timing of antimicrobial agent administration is the only parameter which is included in all the three guidelines. As per NCDC and ASHP it should be within 60 minutes of incision while as per WHO it is within 120 minutes of incision. Materials and Methods This was a prospective observational study—104 patients undergoing surgery in general surgical ward between January 2016 and June 2017 were included in this study. The NCDC guideline was compared with WHO and ASHP guidelines. Real data comparison was done for those parameters which were included in all the three guidelines. Statistical Analysis Data were analyzed using descriptive methods and chi-square test. Results None of the patients in our study received SAP within 60 minutes of incision. In 70% cases it was administered within 2 hours of incision and in the remaining 30% it was administered after more than 2 hours. There was no significant difference in the incidence of SSI among these two groups. Conclusion NCDC SAP guideline helps in rational use of antimicrobials. Increasing the duration for SAP may be added in the NCDC guidelines. Inclusion of certain additional parameters like weight-based doses and consideration for other comorbidities will help in patient- and procedure-specific SAP. Antimicrobial stewardship should be encouraged in all the hospitals and should follow local antimicrobial resistance pattern. This will assist in therapy decision, policy making, and evidence-based treatment.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0041-1728972","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44961964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
S. Suneja, S. Gangopadhyay, V. Saini, R. Dawar, C. Kaur
Abstract Diabetes is a growing epidemic with estimated prevalence of infected to reach ~592 million by the year 2035. An effective way to approach is to detect the disease at a very early stage to reduce the complications and improve lifestyle management. Although several traditional biomarkers including glucated hemoglobin, glucated albumin, fructosamine, and 1,5-anhydroglucitol have helped in ease of diagnosis, there is lack of sensitivity and specificity and are inaccurate in certain clinical settings. Thus, search for new and effective biomarkers is a continuous process with an aim of accurate and timely diagnosis. Several novel biomarkers have surged in the present century that are helpful in timely detection of the disease condition. Although it is accepted that a single biomarker will have its inherent limitations, combining several markers will help to identify individuals at high risk of developing prediabetes and eventually its progression to frank diabetes. This review describes the novel biomarkers of the 21st century, both in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, and their present potential for assessing risk stratification due to insulin resistance that will pave the way for improved clinical outcome.
{"title":"Emerging Diabetic Novel Biomarkers of the 21st Century","authors":"S. Suneja, S. Gangopadhyay, V. Saini, R. Dawar, C. Kaur","doi":"10.1055/s-0041-1726613","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1726613","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Diabetes is a growing epidemic with estimated prevalence of infected to reach ~592 million by the year 2035. An effective way to approach is to detect the disease at a very early stage to reduce the complications and improve lifestyle management. Although several traditional biomarkers including glucated hemoglobin, glucated albumin, fructosamine, and 1,5-anhydroglucitol have helped in ease of diagnosis, there is lack of sensitivity and specificity and are inaccurate in certain clinical settings. Thus, search for new and effective biomarkers is a continuous process with an aim of accurate and timely diagnosis. Several novel biomarkers have surged in the present century that are helpful in timely detection of the disease condition. Although it is accepted that a single biomarker will have its inherent limitations, combining several markers will help to identify individuals at high risk of developing prediabetes and eventually its progression to frank diabetes. This review describes the novel biomarkers of the 21st century, both in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, and their present potential for assessing risk stratification due to insulin resistance that will pave the way for improved clinical outcome.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0041-1726613","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43249713","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract Cysteine cathepsins are lysosomal proteases that require Cys-His ion pair in their catalytic site for enzymatic activity. While their aberrant expression and oncogenic functions have been widely reported in solid tumors, recent findings suggest that these proteases also play an important role in the pathogenesis of hematological malignancies. In this review, we summarize the potential clinical implications of cysteine cathepsins as diagnostic and prognostic markers in leukemia, and present evidences which supports the utility of these proteases as potential therapeutic targets in hematological malignancies. We also highlight the available information on the expression patterns, regulation, and potential functions of cysteine cathepsins in normal hematopoiesis and hematological malignancies. In hematopoiesis, cysteine cathepsins play a variety of physiological roles including regulation of hematopoietic stem cell adhesion in the bone marrow, trafficking, and maturation. They are also involved in several functions of immune cells which include the selection of lymphocytes in the thymus, antigen processing, and presentation. However, the expression of cysteine cathepsins is dysregulated in hematological malignancies where they have been shown to play diverse functions. Interestingly, several pieces of evidence over the past few years have demonstrated overexpression of cathepsins in leukemia and their association with worst survival outcomes in patients. Strategies aimed at altering the expression, activity, and subcellular localization of these cathepsins are emerging as potential therapeutic modalaties in the management of hematological malignancies. Recent findings also suggest the involvement of these proteases in modulating the immune response in leukemia and lymphomas.
{"title":"Cysteine Cathepsins and Their Prognostic and Therapeutic Relevance in Leukemia","authors":"M. Arora, G. Pandey, S. Chauhan","doi":"10.1055/s-0041-1726151","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1726151","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Cysteine cathepsins are lysosomal proteases that require Cys-His ion pair in their catalytic site for enzymatic activity. While their aberrant expression and oncogenic functions have been widely reported in solid tumors, recent findings suggest that these proteases also play an important role in the pathogenesis of hematological malignancies. In this review, we summarize the potential clinical implications of cysteine cathepsins as diagnostic and prognostic markers in leukemia, and present evidences which supports the utility of these proteases as potential therapeutic targets in hematological malignancies. We also highlight the available information on the expression patterns, regulation, and potential functions of cysteine cathepsins in normal hematopoiesis and hematological malignancies. In hematopoiesis, cysteine cathepsins play a variety of physiological roles including regulation of hematopoietic stem cell adhesion in the bone marrow, trafficking, and maturation. They are also involved in several functions of immune cells which include the selection of lymphocytes in the thymus, antigen processing, and presentation. However, the expression of cysteine cathepsins is dysregulated in hematological malignancies where they have been shown to play diverse functions. Interestingly, several pieces of evidence over the past few years have demonstrated overexpression of cathepsins in leukemia and their association with worst survival outcomes in patients. Strategies aimed at altering the expression, activity, and subcellular localization of these cathepsins are emerging as potential therapeutic modalaties in the management of hematological malignancies. Recent findings also suggest the involvement of these proteases in modulating the immune response in leukemia and lymphomas.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0041-1726151","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45882625","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Sandeep Patel, Vishal Kumar, Shahnawaz Khan, A. Salaria
Abstract Loss to follow-up indicates both patients not reporting and inability to trace them during the required follow-up period or study period. Significant loss to follow-up can affect the validity of a study and thereby the impact of that study. The importance of loss to follow-up has been very scarcely and meagerly highlighted in literature. More than one-fifth loss to follow-up can lead to significant selection bias. Loss to follow-up affects delivery of appropriate patient care. In the cohort studies, follow-up rates of 50 to 80% are accepted by authors, due to lack of any recommendations. The causes of loss to follow-up may vary from patient’s age, occupation, chronicity of the disease, etc. Loss to follow-up needs to be reported in all prospective studies, and intention to treat analysis should be applied. This will improve the validity of study, provide reliable results, and reflect the true effect of the intervention used in the study. It also helps to determine the actual survival rates in fatal diseases. The course of a disease can also be monitored, and appropriate intervention can be done at an appropriate point of time to prevent morbidity and mortality. Its overall benefits are better patient care and improved outcomes of the treatment method.
{"title":"Loss to Follow-up: A Deceptive Enigma","authors":"Sandeep Patel, Vishal Kumar, Shahnawaz Khan, A. Salaria","doi":"10.1055/s-0041-1728971","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1728971","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Loss to follow-up indicates both patients not reporting and inability to trace them during the required follow-up period or study period. Significant loss to follow-up can affect the validity of a study and thereby the impact of that study. The importance of loss to follow-up has been very scarcely and meagerly highlighted in literature. More than one-fifth loss to follow-up can lead to significant selection bias. Loss to follow-up affects delivery of appropriate patient care. In the cohort studies, follow-up rates of 50 to 80% are accepted by authors, due to lack of any recommendations. The causes of loss to follow-up may vary from patient’s age, occupation, chronicity of the disease, etc. Loss to follow-up needs to be reported in all prospective studies, and intention to treat analysis should be applied. This will improve the validity of study, provide reliable results, and reflect the true effect of the intervention used in the study. It also helps to determine the actual survival rates in fatal diseases. The course of a disease can also be monitored, and appropriate intervention can be done at an appropriate point of time to prevent morbidity and mortality. Its overall benefits are better patient care and improved outcomes of the treatment method.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0041-1728971","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48012049","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
J. Charan, Rimplejeet Kaur, P. Bhardwaj, Kuldeep Singh, S. Ambwani, S. Misra
Abstract Quality of research is determined by many factors and one such climacteric factor is sample size. Inability to use correct sample size in study might lead to fallacious results in the form of rejection of true findings or approval of false results. Too large sample size is wastage of resources and use of too small sample size might fail to answer the research question or provide imprecise results and may question the validity of study. Despite being such a paramount aspect of research, the knowledge about sample size calculation is sparse among researchers. Why is it important to calculate sample size; when to calculate it; how to calculate it and what details about sample size calculation should be reported in research protocols or articles; are the lesser known basics to majority of researchers. The present review is directed to address these aforementioned fundamentals about sample size. Sample size should be calculated during the initial phase of planning of study. Several components are required for sample size calculation such as effect size, type-1 error, type-2 error, and variance. Researchers must be aware that there are different formulas for calculating sample size for different types of study designs. The researcher must include details about sample size calculation in the methodology section, so that it can be justified and it also adds to the transparency of the study. The literature about calculation of sample size for different study designs is scattered over many textbooks and journals. Scrupulous literature search was conducted to find the passable information for this review. This paper presents the sample size calculation formulas in a single review in a simplified manner with relevant examples, so that researchers may adequately use them in their research.
{"title":"Sample Size Calculation in Medical Research: A Primer","authors":"J. Charan, Rimplejeet Kaur, P. Bhardwaj, Kuldeep Singh, S. Ambwani, S. Misra","doi":"10.1055/s-0040-1722104","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1722104","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Quality of research is determined by many factors and one such climacteric factor is sample size. Inability to use correct sample size in study might lead to fallacious results in the form of rejection of true findings or approval of false results. Too large sample size is wastage of resources and use of too small sample size might fail to answer the research question or provide imprecise results and may question the validity of study. Despite being such a paramount aspect of research, the knowledge about sample size calculation is sparse among researchers. Why is it important to calculate sample size; when to calculate it; how to calculate it and what details about sample size calculation should be reported in research protocols or articles; are the lesser known basics to majority of researchers. The present review is directed to address these aforementioned fundamentals about sample size. Sample size should be calculated during the initial phase of planning of study. Several components are required for sample size calculation such as effect size, type-1 error, type-2 error, and variance. Researchers must be aware that there are different formulas for calculating sample size for different types of study designs. The researcher must include details about sample size calculation in the methodology section, so that it can be justified and it also adds to the transparency of the study. The literature about calculation of sample size for different study designs is scattered over many textbooks and journals. Scrupulous literature search was conducted to find the passable information for this review. This paper presents the sample size calculation formulas in a single review in a simplified manner with relevant examples, so that researchers may adequately use them in their research.","PeriodicalId":53332,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences India","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1055/s-0040-1722104","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45872305","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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