{"title":"Legalized Extortion: A State-led Governance Regime to Control Informal Street Vending at Lima’s Gamarra Market, Peru","authors":"Francesco Ginocchio","doi":"10.31389/jied.132","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.132","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69567687","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Urban Insecurity, Contested Governance, and Civic Resistance at the Colombia-Venezuela Border","authors":"Markus Hochmüller","doi":"10.31389/jied.131","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.131","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69567902","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Housing Security: Placing Brazil’s Social Housing Program in a Violent Context","authors":"F. Müller","doi":"10.31389/jied.177","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.177","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69567938","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The production of illicit drugs contributes to important environmental harms. In the European context, the production of synthetic drugs, particularly MDMA and amphetamine (and more recently methamphetamine), increasingly poses environmental challenges. The production of these substances in Europe is mainly concentrated in the Netherlands and to a lesser extent in Belgium. In this contribution we focus on the Belgian case, particularly in Flanders—the Belgian region where synthetic drug production has been more present. The goals of our analysis are 1) to document the presence of illicit synthetic drug production and dumping of chemical waste material in that region, 2) to explore the media coverage of environmental harms associated with those activities, and 3) to identify the range of reported environmental harms. We draw on data from the Belgian Federal Police and on an analysis of 289 news articles published in selected Flemish newspapers (2013–2020). The findings indicate that although there is an increasing trend in the presence of synthetic drug production and dumping sites in Belgium, the details on the nature and extent of environmental harms are often unknown. Besides difficulties around detecting certain types of dumping events, there are also important blind spots in terms of the monitoring of environmental hazards by law enforcement agencies and how that information is shared among the relevant actors.
{"title":"Synthetic Drug Production in Belgium – Environmental Harms as Collateral Damage?","authors":"M. Pardal, C. Colman, T. Surmont","doi":"10.31389/jied.84","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.84","url":null,"abstract":"The production of illicit drugs contributes to important environmental harms. In the European context, the production of synthetic drugs, particularly MDMA and amphetamine (and more recently methamphetamine), increasingly poses environmental challenges. The production of these substances in Europe is mainly concentrated in the Netherlands and to a lesser extent in Belgium. In this contribution we focus on the Belgian case, particularly in Flanders—the Belgian region where synthetic drug production has been more present. The goals of our analysis are 1) to document the presence of illicit synthetic drug production and dumping of chemical waste material in that region, 2) to explore the media coverage of environmental harms associated with those activities, and 3) to identify the range of reported environmental harms. We draw on data from the Belgian Federal Police and on an analysis of 289 news articles published in selected Flemish newspapers (2013–2020). The findings indicate that although there is an increasing trend in the presence of synthetic drug production and dumping sites in Belgium, the details on the nature and extent of environmental harms are often unknown. Besides difficulties around detecting certain types of dumping events, there are also important blind spots in terms of the monitoring of environmental hazards by law enforcement agencies and how that information is shared among the relevant actors.","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69568273","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The unprecedented global scale of illegal wildlife trade poses threats to humans and ecosystems. Policies calling for increased enforcement to control illicit trade are rooted in the idea that more enforcement will result in greater deterrence, but as yet it is unclear how the illegal wildlife supply chain responds to enforcement actions. To evaluate the impact of formal or informal deterrence, it may be pertinent to consider strategies used by illicit networks to avoid sanction threats. Using an exploratory case study on urban wild meat trade (Republic of Congo), we describe some of the strategies used to avoid detection and consider how the concept of restrictive deterrence can be used to advance our understanding of the broader impacts of sanction threats on offender decision-making in illegal wildlife supply chains.
{"title":"Sanction Avoidance and the Illegal Wildlife Trade: A Case Study of an Urban Wild Meat Supply Chain","authors":"Meredith L. Gore, Lucie Escouflaire, M. Wieland","doi":"10.31389/jied.88","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.88","url":null,"abstract":"The unprecedented global scale of illegal wildlife trade poses threats to humans and ecosystems. Policies calling for increased enforcement to control illicit trade are rooted in the idea that more enforcement will result in greater deterrence, but as yet it is unclear how the illegal wildlife supply chain responds to enforcement actions. To evaluate the impact of formal or informal deterrence, it may be pertinent to consider strategies used by illicit networks to avoid sanction threats. Using an exploratory case study on urban wild meat trade (Republic of Congo), we describe some of the strategies used to avoid detection and consider how the concept of restrictive deterrence can be used to advance our understanding of the broader impacts of sanction threats on offender decision-making in illegal wildlife supply chains.","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42115280","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
For decades, illicit economies have predominantly been studied and debated as a security problem with social and development consequences. However, the interaction between illicit economies and the environment, in cases such as illicit drug crop cultivation and drugs production, is more recent and a rather unexplored discussion– despite that it is not a new phenomenon. From an environmental standpoint, illicit economies can lead to a broad array of negative impacts, with complex interactions. This Special Issue of the Journal of illicit Economies and Development seeks to enhance the evidence basis and understanding of the environmental impacts of illicit economies beyond traditional crime-focused indicators. The special issue pursues to shed more light on the manifold interlinkages between illicit economies and the environment, contributing to a growing body of research of a rather young branch of research in the field of illicit economies. The special issue gathers a broad array of phenomena, perspectives, and disciplines, combining original research and policy considerations. The Special Issue includes contributions on the environmental impacts of illicit drug crop cultivation, drug trafficking, drug production, illicit trade in bushmeat and wildlife in general, land grabbing and illicit sand mining, covering a broad range of regions and continents.
{"title":"Introduction Special Issue: Environmental Impacts of Illicit Economies","authors":"Daniel Brombacher, J. C. Garzón, M. Vélez","doi":"10.31389/jied.107","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.107","url":null,"abstract":"For decades, illicit economies have predominantly been studied and debated as a security problem with social and development consequences. However, the interaction between illicit economies and the environment, in cases such as illicit drug crop cultivation and drugs production, is more recent and a rather unexplored discussion– despite that it is not a new phenomenon. From an environmental standpoint, illicit economies can lead to a broad array of negative impacts, with complex interactions. This Special Issue of the Journal of illicit Economies and Development seeks to enhance the evidence basis and understanding of the environmental impacts of illicit economies beyond traditional crime-focused indicators. The special issue pursues to shed more light on the manifold interlinkages between illicit economies and the environment, contributing to a growing body of research of a rather young branch of research in the field of illicit economies. The special issue gathers a broad array of phenomena, perspectives, and disciplines, combining original research and policy considerations. The Special Issue includes contributions on the environmental impacts of illicit drug crop cultivation, drug trafficking, drug production, illicit trade in bushmeat and wildlife in general, land grabbing and illicit sand mining, covering a broad range of regions and continents.","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44095647","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Héctor Fabio Santos Duarte, A. Schmidt, Sofia Wahl
In Colombia, deforestation is one of the most relevant environmental problems, and the cultivation of illicit coca crops is often mentioned as one of its direct and indirect drivers. Over the past two decades, both dynamics have been converging, and are now found in largely the same areas. These tend to be characterized by weak governmental control, the presence of illegal armed groups, and adverse socioeconomic conditions. Alarmingly, almost half of the illicit coca cultivation has recently been found in the environmentally sensitive Special Management Zones of Colombia (such as protected areas and forest reservation zones or ethnic territories). This policy commentary highlights potential sustainable development approaches to address coca-related deforestation in Colombia. It takes into account the country’s current public policy framework and practical experiences of the Colombian Government as well as the Global Partnership on Drug Policies and Development (GPDPD), a programme at Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, and its partners. These interventions are based on the Alternative Development (AD) concept that introduces viable and legal livelihood alternatives in coca-growing areas to promote rural development and discourage illicit cultivation. The article suggests aligning drug and environmental policies to implement integrated AD programmes with an environmental dimension through elements such as agroforestry, forest governance strategies or Payments for Ecosystem Services. It further calls for improved framework conditions through an updated cadastral and land titling system. In Special Management Zones, differentiated approaches are necessary to tailor interventions to the specific environmental and cultural conditions of these territories.
{"title":"Addressing Coca-Related Deforestation in Colombia: A Call for Aligning Drug and Environmental Policies for Sustainable Development","authors":"Héctor Fabio Santos Duarte, A. Schmidt, Sofia Wahl","doi":"10.31389/jied.79","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.79","url":null,"abstract":"In Colombia, deforestation is one of the most relevant environmental problems, and the cultivation of illicit coca crops is often mentioned as one of its direct and indirect drivers. Over the past two decades, both dynamics have been converging, and are now found in largely the same areas. These tend to be characterized by weak governmental control, the presence of illegal armed groups, and adverse socioeconomic conditions. Alarmingly, almost half of the illicit coca cultivation has recently been found in the environmentally sensitive Special Management Zones of Colombia (such as protected areas and forest reservation zones or ethnic territories). This policy commentary highlights potential sustainable development approaches to address coca-related deforestation in Colombia. It takes into account the country’s current public policy framework and practical experiences of the Colombian Government as well as the Global Partnership on Drug Policies and Development (GPDPD), a programme at Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, and its partners. These interventions are based on the Alternative Development (AD) concept that introduces viable and legal livelihood alternatives in coca-growing areas to promote rural development and discourage illicit cultivation. The article suggests aligning drug and environmental policies to implement integrated AD programmes with an environmental dimension through elements such as agroforestry, forest governance strategies or Payments for Ecosystem Services. It further calls for improved framework conditions through an updated cadastral and land titling system. In Special Management Zones, differentiated approaches are necessary to tailor interventions to the specific environmental and cultural conditions of these territories.","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49173772","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The purpose of this paper is to understand the dynamics behind the expansion and consolidation of coca crops in the National Natural Parks of the Colombian National System of Protected Areas –SINAP-, based on fieldwork carried out in the national parks Catatumbo Bari (Norte de Santander), Alto Fragua Indi Wasi (Caqueta), and Farallones de Cali (Valle del Cauca), which have approximately 1.500 hectares of coca crops. This fieldwork has allowed us to identify the drivers behind the growth of coca in areas destined for environmental protection, as well as the different policies and programs that the Colombian Government has designed to respond to the presence of coca crops in these territories. Based on these inputs, we opened the discussion on the need to rethink the governance model for Colombia’s protected areas. To this end, we propose the formulation of a Special and Transitional Management Regime for Peasants (REMC) in protected areas, which will allow for a balance between the conservation objectives of these territories and respect for the rights of the peasants who have historically settled there.
本文的目的是基于在国家公园Catatumbo Bari（北桑坦德省）、Alto Fragua Indi Wasi（Caqueta）和Farallones de Cali（考卡山谷）进行的实地调查，了解哥伦比亚国家保护区系统（SINAP）国家自然公园古柯作物扩张和巩固背后的动态，它们拥有大约1500公顷的古柯作物。这一实地调查使我们能够确定环境保护地区古柯种植背后的驱动因素，以及哥伦比亚政府为应对这些地区古柯作物的存在而制定的不同政策和方案。基于这些投入，我们开始讨论重新思考哥伦比亚保护区治理模式的必要性。为此，我们建议制定保护区农民特别和过渡管理制度，以在这些地区的保护目标和尊重历史上定居在那里的农民的权利之间取得平衡。
{"title":"Illicit Crop Cultivation in Colombia’s National Natural Parks: Dynamics, Drivers, and Policy Responses","authors":"José Bernal, Jerónimo Sudarsky, C. Riveros","doi":"10.31389/jied.81","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.81","url":null,"abstract":"The purpose of this paper is to understand the dynamics behind the expansion and consolidation of coca crops in the National Natural Parks of the Colombian National System of Protected Areas –SINAP-, based on fieldwork carried out in the national parks Catatumbo Bari (Norte de Santander), Alto Fragua Indi Wasi (Caqueta), and Farallones de Cali (Valle del Cauca), which have approximately 1.500 hectares of coca crops. This fieldwork has allowed us to identify the drivers behind the growth of coca in areas destined for environmental protection, as well as the different policies and programs that the Colombian Government has designed to respond to the presence of coca crops in these territories. Based on these inputs, we opened the discussion on the need to rethink the governance model for Colombia’s protected areas. To this end, we propose the formulation of a Special and Transitional Management Regime for Peasants (REMC) in protected areas, which will allow for a balance between the conservation objectives of these territories and respect for the rights of the peasants who have historically settled there.","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48089730","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
B. Tellman, K. McSweeney, Leah Manak, J. Devine, S. Sesnie, E. Nielsen, Anayansi Dávila
On frontiers dominated by illicit activities such as narcotrafficking, criminal organizations’ usurpation of land and resources is profoundly changing rural livelihoods and prospects for biodiversity conservation. Prior work has demonstrated how drug trafficking catalyzes forest loss and smallholder dispossession but does not make clear the extent to which the long-term control of land is moved from state, Indigenous, or smallholders to criminal or other actors. This study attempts to describe those shifts. Specifically: we develop a typology of land control, and use it to track how drug trafficking initiates shifts from public lands and Indigenous territories to private large holdings. We examine an array of secondary sources indicating shifts in land control related to narcotrafficking, including illegal land seizure documents, news media, and surveys of land managers. In absence of formal land registries, frontier actors may signal their control over land through land use change. After establishing where changes in land control have taken place, we analyzed land use and resulting changes in spatial patterns of forest loss. We found that large scale sustained forest losses (over 713,244 ha and 417,329 ha), in Guatemala and Honduras, respectively, from 2000–2019) corresponds with areas undergoing shifts in control towards large landowners, often related to narcotrafficking. Incomplete empirical data on land control prevent comprehensive attribution of all sustained forest loss related to narcotrafficking. Yet the limited evidence gathered here indicates drug trafficking activities initiate widespread and sustained shifts and consolidation of who controls land and resources at the frontier. Our work suggests that in Central America and likely elsewhere, control over land—quite separate from property rights—is the key factor in understanding social and ecological change.
{"title":"Narcotrafficking and Land Control in Guatemala and Honduras","authors":"B. Tellman, K. McSweeney, Leah Manak, J. Devine, S. Sesnie, E. Nielsen, Anayansi Dávila","doi":"10.31389/jied.83","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31389/jied.83","url":null,"abstract":"On frontiers dominated by illicit activities such as narcotrafficking, criminal organizations’ usurpation of land and resources is profoundly changing rural livelihoods and prospects for biodiversity conservation. Prior work has demonstrated how drug trafficking catalyzes forest loss and smallholder dispossession but does not make clear the extent to which the long-term control of land is moved from state, Indigenous, or smallholders to criminal or other actors. This study attempts to describe those shifts. Specifically: we develop a typology of land control, and use it to track how drug trafficking initiates shifts from public lands and Indigenous territories to private large holdings. We examine an array of secondary sources indicating shifts in land control related to narcotrafficking, including illegal land seizure documents, news media, and surveys of land managers. In absence of formal land registries, frontier actors may signal their control over land through land use change. After establishing where changes in land control have taken place, we analyzed land use and resulting changes in spatial patterns of forest loss. We found that large scale sustained forest losses (over 713,244 ha and 417,329 ha), in Guatemala and Honduras, respectively, from 2000–2019) corresponds with areas undergoing shifts in control towards large landowners, often related to narcotrafficking. Incomplete empirical data on land control prevent comprehensive attribution of all sustained forest loss related to narcotrafficking. Yet the limited evidence gathered here indicates drug trafficking activities initiate widespread and sustained shifts and consolidation of who controls land and resources at the frontier. Our work suggests that in Central America and likely elsewhere, control over land—quite separate from property rights—is the key factor in understanding social and ecological change.","PeriodicalId":73784,"journal":{"name":"Journal of illicit economies and development","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45923047","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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