Pub Date : 2025-12-09DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023051
Jeremy G. Venditti
Landscapes are shaped by the interaction of tectonics, climate, and rock erosion dynamics. Active incision in bedrock rivers sets the pace of landscape evolution because river incision cuts deep valleys and canyons into bedrock, transporting that material to the sea. This unburdens Earth's surface, allowing uplift of majestic mountain peaks in tectonically active settings. Bedrock-bound rivers, where the banks and bed are mostly bedrock, are hard points in the landscape that set the upstream base level of drainage basins and that must be vertically incised to lower landscape elevation and balance erosion against tectonic uplift. There are four distinct bedrock-bound channel morphologies that do not occur in alluvial channels—constriction-pool-widenings, rapids, overfalls, and waterfalls—each of which has a distinct flow structure. Our ability to predict bedrock-bound channel morphodynamics is nascent, but the discovery of mechanistic lateral bedrock erosion models, coupled with existing vertical incision models, allow prediction of bedrock river geometry and adjustments due to changes in water flux, sediment supply, and regional uplift. ▪ Coupled lateral and vertical erosion models reveal that the geometry of bedrock rivers is dominantly controlled by sediment supply, not discharge. ▪ Coupling observations of nonuniform flow structures and erosion models confirm that bedrock-bound channels are loci of intense erosion along a river's profile. ▪ Prediction of the 3D shape of bedrock-bound rivers is possible by combining models for flow, sediment transport, and bedrock erosion. ▪ Morphodynamic predictions are limited by poor understanding of nonuniform flow structures, flow resistance, and sediment transport in bedrock-bound channels.
{"title":"Morphodynamics of Bedrock Rivers","authors":"Jeremy G. Venditti","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023051","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023051","url":null,"abstract":"Landscapes are shaped by the interaction of tectonics, climate, and rock erosion dynamics. Active incision in bedrock rivers sets the pace of landscape evolution because river incision cuts deep valleys and canyons into bedrock, transporting that material to the sea. This unburdens Earth's surface, allowing uplift of majestic mountain peaks in tectonically active settings. Bedrock-bound rivers, where the banks and bed are mostly bedrock, are hard points in the landscape that set the upstream base level of drainage basins and that must be vertically incised to lower landscape elevation and balance erosion against tectonic uplift. There are four distinct bedrock-bound channel morphologies that do not occur in alluvial channels—constriction-pool-widenings, rapids, overfalls, and waterfalls—each of which has a distinct flow structure. Our ability to predict bedrock-bound channel morphodynamics is nascent, but the discovery of mechanistic lateral bedrock erosion models, coupled with existing vertical incision models, allow prediction of bedrock river geometry and adjustments due to changes in water flux, sediment supply, and regional uplift. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Coupled lateral and vertical erosion models reveal that the geometry of bedrock rivers is dominantly controlled by sediment supply, not discharge. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Coupling observations of nonuniform flow structures and erosion models confirm that bedrock-bound channels are loci of intense erosion along a river's profile. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Prediction of the 3D shape of bedrock-bound rivers is possible by combining models for flow, sediment transport, and bedrock erosion. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Morphodynamic predictions are limited by poor understanding of nonuniform flow structures, flow resistance, and sediment transport in bedrock-bound channels. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"23 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-12-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145753186","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-26DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-124419
Christian Huber, Olivier Bachmann, Darien Florez, E.M. Parmentier, Matěj Peč, Jonas Latt, Maxime Rambosson, Uthkarsh Das
The interplay between melt, crystals, andvolatile bubbles controls the physical properties of magmas in Earth's crust, the rate of phase separation, and, by extension, chemical differentiation. The mechanical processes that couple crystals, bubbles, and melt are nonlinear, and their expression in magmatic systems can vary greatly with the relative phase proportions in the magma. In this review we propose a multiscale perspective on multiphase magmas under crustal storage conditions, with a specific focus on phase separation mechanisms. We start with an inventory of forces acting on a single crystal or volatile bubble in a silicate melt. We follow with a discussion of different upscaling strategies to simplify the description of the dynamics at greater scales, relevant to the evolution of magma reservoirs.We discuss recent progress in the development of models to study the internal dynamics of magma reservoirs, highlight current challenges, and propose possible paths for further progress. ▪ The mechanical interaction between the constituents (melt, crystals, and bubbles) at the scale of crystals controls the properties of magmas. ▪ The choice of upscaling strategy is controlled by the processes that are considered. ▪ Melt-crystal separation processes and their efficiency vary with the relative proportion of the phases involved. ▪ Melt extraction by repacking is fast compared to compaction but stalls as the mush reaches the maximum packing.
{"title":"The Mechanics of Multiphase Magmas: A Perspective from the Scale of Crystals and Bubbles to Magma Reservoirs","authors":"Christian Huber, Olivier Bachmann, Darien Florez, E.M. Parmentier, Matěj Peč, Jonas Latt, Maxime Rambosson, Uthkarsh Das","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-124419","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-124419","url":null,"abstract":"The interplay between melt, crystals, andvolatile bubbles controls the physical properties of magmas in Earth's crust, the rate of phase separation, and, by extension, chemical differentiation. The mechanical processes that couple crystals, bubbles, and melt are nonlinear, and their expression in magmatic systems can vary greatly with the relative phase proportions in the magma. In this review we propose a multiscale perspective on multiphase magmas under crustal storage conditions, with a specific focus on phase separation mechanisms. We start with an inventory of forces acting on a single crystal or volatile bubble in a silicate melt. We follow with a discussion of different upscaling strategies to simplify the description of the dynamics at greater scales, relevant to the evolution of magma reservoirs.We discuss recent progress in the development of models to study the internal dynamics of magma reservoirs, highlight current challenges, and propose possible paths for further progress. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The mechanical interaction between the constituents (melt, crystals, and bubbles) at the scale of crystals controls the properties of magmas. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The choice of upscaling strategy is controlled by the processes that are considered. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Melt-crystal separation processes and their efficiency vary with the relative proportion of the phases involved. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Melt extraction by repacking is fast compared to compaction but stalls as the mush reaches the maximum packing. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"118 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145609824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-25DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-011040
James C. Lamsdell, Sarah L. Sheffield, Amanda R. Falk
The burgeoning field of phylogenetic paleoecology combines paleoecological data with hypotheses of phylogenetic relationships to tease apart the roles that ecology and relatedness both play in the evolution and function of an organism. The purpose of this review is to make phylogenetic paleontology more accessible to a wider array of scientists and attract new researchers to the discipline. Herein, we use recently published analyses of a diverse array of fossil animals (e.g., arthropods, echinoderms, and carnivorans) to better illustrate the breadth of research questions that can be studied using phylogenetic paleoecology. Phylogenetic paleoecology has been used to discern drivers of morphological change and variations in evolutionary rates, along with the relationship between phylogeny, biogeography, and ecology. Additional avenues of research could focus on modularity and mosaicism in evolution, as well as the impact of mass extinctions and adaptive radiations. By encouraging a greater diversity of scientific backgrounds and plurality of thought, and by incorporating new perspectives from different areas of both geology and biology, the field of phylogenetic paleoecology will lead to the consideration of new questions, avenues, and possibilities that would otherwise go unexplored.
{"title":"A Practical Guide to Phylogenetic Paleoecology","authors":"James C. Lamsdell, Sarah L. Sheffield, Amanda R. Falk","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-011040","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-011040","url":null,"abstract":"The burgeoning field of phylogenetic paleoecology combines paleoecological data with hypotheses of phylogenetic relationships to tease apart the roles that ecology and relatedness both play in the evolution and function of an organism. The purpose of this review is to make phylogenetic paleontology more accessible to a wider array of scientists and attract new researchers to the discipline. Herein, we use recently published analyses of a diverse array of fossil animals (e.g., arthropods, echinoderms, and carnivorans) to better illustrate the breadth of research questions that can be studied using phylogenetic paleoecology. Phylogenetic paleoecology has been used to discern drivers of morphological change and variations in evolutionary rates, along with the relationship between phylogeny, biogeography, and ecology. Additional avenues of research could focus on modularity and mosaicism in evolution, as well as the impact of mass extinctions and adaptive radiations. By encouraging a greater diversity of scientific backgrounds and plurality of thought, and by incorporating new perspectives from different areas of both geology and biology, the field of phylogenetic paleoecology will lead to the consideration of new questions, avenues, and possibilities that would otherwise go unexplored.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"24 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145599563","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-21DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-010346
Melissa Charenko
Stratigraphers’ recent vote to reject the Anthropocene as a geological epoch could have consequences beyond geology, as many other disciplines have adopted the term. This review focuses on the potential effects of this negative vote on the humanities and social sciences by drawing on perspectives from science and society. It argues that stratigraphers’ negative vote is likely to have little effect on other disciplines because most humanists and social scientists are not using the stratigraphic term. Instead, they understand the Anthropocene as shorthand for human-caused environmental change, which is clearly occurring. Humanists and social scientists also remain interested in the Anthropocene because the collapsing distinction between the human and the geological continues to present challenges worth engaging with. While the diverse interpretations and engagements with the Anthropocene may result in incoherence, this review summarizes literature that suggests that this plurality of meanings is what gives the Anthropocene concept its strength.The Anthropocene is likely to remain a key concept in the humanities and social sciences, despite stratigraphers’ rejection of the epoch. ▪ The Anthropocene means different things to different disciplines. These multiple meanings are likely to persist. ▪ A plurality of meanings and usages of the Anthropocene captures how knowledge is produced and may spur environmental solutions.
{"title":"Science and Society's Views of the Anthropocene","authors":"Melissa Charenko","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-010346","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-010346","url":null,"abstract":"Stratigraphers’ recent vote to reject the Anthropocene as a geological epoch could have consequences beyond geology, as many other disciplines have adopted the term. This review focuses on the potential effects of this negative vote on the humanities and social sciences by drawing on perspectives from science and society. It argues that stratigraphers’ negative vote is likely to have little effect on other disciplines because most humanists and social scientists are not using the stratigraphic term. Instead, they understand the Anthropocene as shorthand for human-caused environmental change, which is clearly occurring. Humanists and social scientists also remain interested in the Anthropocene because the collapsing distinction between the human and the geological continues to present challenges worth engaging with. While the diverse interpretations and engagements with the Anthropocene may result in incoherence, this review summarizes literature that suggests that this plurality of meanings is what gives the Anthropocene concept its strength.The Anthropocene is likely to remain a key concept in the humanities and social sciences, despite stratigraphers’ rejection of the epoch. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The Anthropocene means different things to different disciplines. These multiple meanings are likely to persist. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> A plurality of meanings and usages of the Anthropocene captures how knowledge is produced and may spur environmental solutions. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"29 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145567771","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-11DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-113641
Kari M. Cooper, Adam J.R. Kent
Understanding the links between magmatic evolution and volcanic eruptions requires knowledge of the physical behavior of magmas stored and transported within Earth's crust. The mobility of magmas is fundamentally tied to their rheology and therefore the temperatures they experience during residence—their thermal history. We review petrological and other constraints on magma thermal histories that silicic magmas experience during crustal storage. We also focus on the recent debate between cold and warm magma storage models, using a common conceptual framework that allows a more coherent synthesis of magma storage conditions. Evidence suggests that although most silicic crustal magmatic systems spend most of their time in a rheologically immobile state, variations exist in space and time. The recognition of dominantly immobile but variable storage conditions allows us to move beyond a simple dichotomy and to ask more interesting questions about how these variations in magma storage occur and evolve. ▪ Understanding the thermal conditions of crustal magma storage is critical to assessing magma mobility and the ability to erupt. ▪ We synthesize available information about thermal histories that magmas experience within a common conceptual framework. ▪ Most silicic magmas spend most of their time in a rheologically immobile state, but variability exists over time and space within and between magma systems. ▪ We can advance our understanding most effectively by focusing on the controls on these variations and implications for magma evolution and eruption.
{"title":"Petrological Constraints on the Thermal History of Magma Storage in the Crust","authors":"Kari M. Cooper, Adam J.R. Kent","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-113641","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-113641","url":null,"abstract":"Understanding the links between magmatic evolution and volcanic eruptions requires knowledge of the physical behavior of magmas stored and transported within Earth's crust. The mobility of magmas is fundamentally tied to their rheology and therefore the temperatures they experience during residence—their thermal history. We review petrological and other constraints on magma thermal histories that silicic magmas experience during crustal storage. We also focus on the recent debate between cold and warm magma storage models, using a common conceptual framework that allows a more coherent synthesis of magma storage conditions. Evidence suggests that although most silicic crustal magmatic systems spend most of their time in a rheologically immobile state, variations exist in space and time. The recognition of dominantly immobile but variable storage conditions allows us to move beyond a simple dichotomy and to ask more interesting questions about how these variations in magma storage occur and evolve. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Understanding the thermal conditions of crustal magma storage is critical to assessing magma mobility and the ability to erupt. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> We synthesize available information about thermal histories that magmas experience within a common conceptual framework. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Most silicic magmas spend most of their time in a rheologically immobile state, but variability exists over time and space within and between magma systems. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> We can advance our understanding most effectively by focusing on the controls on these variations and implications for magma evolution and eruption. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"67 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145491820","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-06DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023602
Matthew Steele-MacInnis
Fluid inclusions provide a wealth of information on the compositions, temperatures, and other properties of fluids that form mineral deposits. Fluid inclusions representative of aqueous-hydrothermal ore-forming fluids have been studied extensively over many years, and our understanding of their properties is comprehensive. But in recent years, evidence has been mounting for widespread occurrence of novel and unexpected types of fluid inclusions. These fluids are composed of molten alkali-calcic chloride, sulfate, and carbonate components, and they contain little to no H 2 O. Their physical and chemical properties are only starting to be explored, but evidence for their capacity to mobilize certain metals, and their participation in crustal ore-forming processes, is growing. The objectives of this review are to showcase these novel solutions and to discuss their origins and roles in forming mineral deposits. ▪ Fluid inclusions in minerals reveal widespread occurrence of natural molten salts. ▪ Evidence for molten salts, composed of chloride, sulfate, and carbonate components, is reported in numerous ore deposits. ▪ Molten salts are low-viscosity fluids, highly chemically reactive, and capable of transporting high concentrations of critical metals. ▪ Molten salts represent a novel and unexpected type of crustal ore-forming fluid.
{"title":"Molten Salts: Fluid Inclusion Record and Role in Forming Mineral Deposits","authors":"Matthew Steele-MacInnis","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023602","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023602","url":null,"abstract":"Fluid inclusions provide a wealth of information on the compositions, temperatures, and other properties of fluids that form mineral deposits. Fluid inclusions representative of aqueous-hydrothermal ore-forming fluids have been studied extensively over many years, and our understanding of their properties is comprehensive. But in recent years, evidence has been mounting for widespread occurrence of novel and unexpected types of fluid inclusions. These fluids are composed of molten alkali-calcic chloride, sulfate, and carbonate components, and they contain little to no H <jats:sub>2</jats:sub> O. Their physical and chemical properties are only starting to be explored, but evidence for their capacity to mobilize certain metals, and their participation in crustal ore-forming processes, is growing. The objectives of this review are to showcase these novel solutions and to discuss their origins and roles in forming mineral deposits. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Fluid inclusions in minerals reveal widespread occurrence of natural molten salts. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Evidence for molten salts, composed of chloride, sulfate, and carbonate components, is reported in numerous ore deposits. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Molten salts are low-viscosity fluids, highly chemically reactive, and capable of transporting high concentrations of critical metals. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Molten salts represent a novel and unexpected type of crustal ore-forming fluid. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"43 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-11-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145454739","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-06-25DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-013254
Ulf Büntgen, Nicola Di Cosmo, Jan Esper, Michael Frachetti, Lamya Khalidi, Franz Mauelshagen, Eleonora Rohland, Clive Oppenheimer
This review examines the societal ramifications of large volcanic eruptions—not the proximal impacts of lava, ash, pumice, and gaseous emissions but rather the consequences of the climate forcing triggered by dispersal of volcanic sulfate aerosol in the stratosphere. Using ice core records of volcanism and tree-ring data of summer temperature anomalies, we analyze 38 preindustrial eruptions that injected an estimated 6 Tg or more of sulfur into the stratosphere. We then explore more than 100 works that consider the volcanism-climate-society nexus, teasing out the key elements of their arguments for or against the role of volcanically forced climate change in far-field societal impacts. As well as summarizing and interrogating the history of ideas and state of the art on this topic, we hope to stimulate further holistic, interdisciplinary approaches to assess the broader implications of volcanic eruptions, particularly for global food security—both in the past and in the future. ▪ There are compelling arguments to consider the role of volcanically forced climate change in explanations of history. ▪ Such research requires integration of geographical, ecological, demographic, econometric, and other data with historical sources and narratives, and therefore demands cross-disciplinary conversation. ▪ Statistical evidence is needed to attribute weather and climate extremes to volcanic forcing, and agricultural and pastoral responses to climate anomalies must be reconstructed at high spatiotemporal resolution. ▪ Several prominent climate forcing eruptions in circa 304, 1182, 1345, and 1453 CE have hitherto received comparatively little attention.
{"title":"Volcanoes, Climate, and Society","authors":"Ulf Büntgen, Nicola Di Cosmo, Jan Esper, Michael Frachetti, Lamya Khalidi, Franz Mauelshagen, Eleonora Rohland, Clive Oppenheimer","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-013254","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032524-013254","url":null,"abstract":"This review examines the societal ramifications of large volcanic eruptions—not the proximal impacts of lava, ash, pumice, and gaseous emissions but rather the consequences of the climate forcing triggered by dispersal of volcanic sulfate aerosol in the stratosphere. Using ice core records of volcanism and tree-ring data of summer temperature anomalies, we analyze 38 preindustrial eruptions that injected an estimated 6 Tg or more of sulfur into the stratosphere. We then explore more than 100 works that consider the volcanism-climate-society nexus, teasing out the key elements of their arguments for or against the role of volcanically forced climate change in far-field societal impacts. As well as summarizing and interrogating the history of ideas and state of the art on this topic, we hope to stimulate further holistic, interdisciplinary approaches to assess the broader implications of volcanic eruptions, particularly for global food security—both in the past and in the future. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> There are compelling arguments to consider the role of volcanically forced climate change in explanations of history. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Such research requires integration of geographical, ecological, demographic, econometric, and other data with historical sources and narratives, and therefore demands cross-disciplinary conversation. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Statistical evidence is needed to attribute weather and climate extremes to volcanic forcing, and agricultural and pastoral responses to climate anomalies must be reconstructed at high spatiotemporal resolution. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Several prominent climate forcing eruptions in circa 304, 1182, 1345, and 1453 CE have hitherto received comparatively little attention. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"630 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-06-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144488899","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-124246
Dennis Grady
The response of geologic matter when subjected to large-scale impact or explosion is dependent on the time history of the encompassing shock wave. The kinetics of localized physical and chemical transitions brought about by the shock wave are responsive to this time history. Solid-state viscosity of the media is responsible for establishing the time history of a shock wave. In 2003, researcher H. Jay Melosh recognized the need for an understanding of solid viscosity spanning the petrologic and lithologic scales, and accordingly, he undertook the assessment and analysis of available nuclear ground shock measurements. This review furthers Melosh's epic efforts. In pursuing both the nuclear ground shock data and supporting laboratory test data, it undertakes methods for determining and calculations of the viscosity of solid materials on the respective scales. Further, applicability of viscoelasticity in modeling the shock response on the scales of concern is demonstrated and applied. The review closes with a discussion of universal features of the shock wave viscous time history in solid materials. Solid viscosity as an adiabatic invariant is presented, and commonalties of the solid shock wave with the nonlinear dynamics of ocean waves are noted. ▪ This article reviews Melosh's analysis of nuclear ground shock measurements with application to shock wave structuring viscosity. ▪ It discusses viscoelastic calculations with application to wave structure of nuclear ground shocks and laboratory shock waves in brittle granular solids, and universal features of the viscous shock wave structure and invariance of the dissipative action are considered. ▪ It also discusses wave action invariance in both the nonlinear dynamics of ocean waves and the steady wave structure of shock waves in solid matter.
地质物质在遭受大规模撞击或爆炸时的反应取决于周围冲击波的时程。激波引起的局部物理和化学转变动力学响应于这一时间历史。介质的固体粘度是建立激波时程的原因。2003年，研究人员H. Jay Melosh认识到有必要了解岩石学和岩性尺度上的固体粘度，因此，他对可用的核地面冲击测量进行了评估和分析。这篇评论进一步推动了米洛什史诗般的努力。在研究核地面冲击数据和辅助实验室测试数据时，它采用了在各自尺度上确定和计算固体材料粘度的方法。此外，粘弹性模型在关注尺度上的冲击响应建模中的适用性得到了证明和应用。最后讨论了固体材料中激波黏性时程的普遍特征。提出了固体粘度作为绝热不变量，并指出了固体激波与海浪非线性动力学的共性。▪本文回顾了Melosh对核地面冲击测量的分析，并将其应用于冲击波结构粘度。■讨论了粘弹性计算在脆性颗粒固体中核地面冲击和实验室冲击波波结构中的应用，并考虑了粘性冲击波结构的普遍特征和耗散作用的不变性。▪它还讨论了海浪的非线性动力学和固体物质中激波的稳定波结构中的波作用不变性。
{"title":"Wave Structuring in the Shock Compression of Geologic Matter at the Planetary and Laboratory Scales","authors":"Dennis Grady","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-124246","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-124246","url":null,"abstract":"The response of geologic matter when subjected to large-scale impact or explosion is dependent on the time history of the encompassing shock wave. The kinetics of localized physical and chemical transitions brought about by the shock wave are responsive to this time history. Solid-state viscosity of the media is responsible for establishing the time history of a shock wave. In 2003, researcher H. Jay Melosh recognized the need for an understanding of solid viscosity spanning the petrologic and lithologic scales, and accordingly, he undertook the assessment and analysis of available nuclear ground shock measurements. This review furthers Melosh's epic efforts. In pursuing both the nuclear ground shock data and supporting laboratory test data, it undertakes methods for determining and calculations of the viscosity of solid materials on the respective scales. Further, applicability of viscoelasticity in modeling the shock response on the scales of concern is demonstrated and applied. The review closes with a discussion of universal features of the shock wave viscous time history in solid materials. Solid viscosity as an adiabatic invariant is presented, and commonalties of the solid shock wave with the nonlinear dynamics of ocean waves are noted. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> This article reviews Melosh's analysis of nuclear ground shock measurements with application to shock wave structuring viscosity. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> It discusses viscoelastic calculations with application to wave structure of nuclear ground shocks and laboratory shock waves in brittle granular solids, and universal features of the viscous shock wave structure and invariance of the dissipative action are considered. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> It also discusses wave action invariance in both the nonlinear dynamics of ocean waves and the steady wave structure of shock waves in solid matter. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144183940","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-095654
Rebecca J. Carey, David A. Butterfield, Malcolm R. Clark
More than 70% of Earth's magmatic output occurs in the ocean. This volcanism shapes major features of the seafloor, directly impacts the chemical composition of the oceans through water/rock interactions, and drives hydrothermal circulation of seawater. The formation of seafloor mineral deposits and chemosynthetic habitats that encircle the globe along mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and hotspots is driven by volcanism. The style, magnitude, depth, and frequency of seafloor eruptions create a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological impacts on the seafloor. Research and exploration over the past 30 years have revealed some of the diversity of seafloor eruptions and their impact on the undersea environment. ▪ Submarine eruptions are simultaneously the most common and the least observed form of volcanism on Earth. ▪ Hydrostatic pressure at the vent depth modulates explosive versus effusive eruption and the form of eruptive behavior. ▪ Submarine eruptions have significant impacts on marine biological communities and chemical fluxes to the ocean. ▪ Resilience of fauna to eruption events is also variable, and recovery dynamics can be slow with many years or decades required for communities to reform.
{"title":"Submarine Volcanic Eruptions and Their Impacts on Hydrothermal Systems and Biological Communities","authors":"Rebecca J. Carey, David A. Butterfield, Malcolm R. Clark","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-095654","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-095654","url":null,"abstract":"More than 70% of Earth's magmatic output occurs in the ocean. This volcanism shapes major features of the seafloor, directly impacts the chemical composition of the oceans through water/rock interactions, and drives hydrothermal circulation of seawater. The formation of seafloor mineral deposits and chemosynthetic habitats that encircle the globe along mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and hotspots is driven by volcanism. The style, magnitude, depth, and frequency of seafloor eruptions create a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological impacts on the seafloor. Research and exploration over the past 30 years have revealed some of the diversity of seafloor eruptions and their impact on the undersea environment. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Submarine eruptions are simultaneously the most common and the least observed form of volcanism on Earth. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Hydrostatic pressure at the vent depth modulates explosive versus effusive eruption and the form of eruptive behavior. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Submarine eruptions have significant impacts on marine biological communities and chemical fluxes to the ocean. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Resilience of fauna to eruption events is also variable, and recovery dynamics can be slow with many years or decades required for communities to reform. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"61 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144184173","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094742
Alexandra Navrotsky, Manuel Scharrer
Chalcogenides (sulfides, selenides, tellurides, arsenides, antimonides) are important in natural processes, including formation of ore deposits on Earth, early stages of planetary accretion, and formation of condensates in planetary atmospheres. Their physicochemical properties render them suitable for a wide range of industrial applications. While thermodynamic data are available for many endmembers, there are significant gaps in both thermodynamic and associated structural constraints, especially for complex systems. The continuous evolution of high temperature calorimetry into oxidative drop solution calorimetry has facilitated the measurement of enthalpies of formation and mixing and surface energies involving nonoxides, including chalcogenides. These are essential for modeling processes in nature and technology and for understanding the underlying properties that define their stabilities. This article reviews the development of these calorimetric techniques and summarizes available thermochemical data for common chalcogenides. ▪ Over the last century, calorimetric instruments and techniques have evolved to enable accurate measurement of a wide range of materials, including chalcogenides. ▪ Despite the growing interest in the thermodynamic characterization of chalcogenides, a systematic review of the available data indicates that there is still a significant scope for further research. ▪ A systematic understanding of chalcogenides will facilitate the modeling of geological environments and enable the prediction and improvement of geo-inspired materials for industrial applications.
{"title":"Experimental Thermochemistry Through the Years with Application to Chalcogenides","authors":"Alexandra Navrotsky, Manuel Scharrer","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094742","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094742","url":null,"abstract":"Chalcogenides (sulfides, selenides, tellurides, arsenides, antimonides) are important in natural processes, including formation of ore deposits on Earth, early stages of planetary accretion, and formation of condensates in planetary atmospheres. Their physicochemical properties render them suitable for a wide range of industrial applications. While thermodynamic data are available for many endmembers, there are significant gaps in both thermodynamic and associated structural constraints, especially for complex systems. The continuous evolution of high temperature calorimetry into oxidative drop solution calorimetry has facilitated the measurement of enthalpies of formation and mixing and surface energies involving nonoxides, including chalcogenides. These are essential for modeling processes in nature and technology and for understanding the underlying properties that define their stabilities. This article reviews the development of these calorimetric techniques and summarizes available thermochemical data for common chalcogenides. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Over the last century, calorimetric instruments and techniques have evolved to enable accurate measurement of a wide range of materials, including chalcogenides. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Despite the growing interest in the thermodynamic characterization of chalcogenides, a systematic review of the available data indicates that there is still a significant scope for further research. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> A systematic understanding of chalcogenides will facilitate the modeling of geological environments and enable the prediction and improvement of geo-inspired materials for industrial applications. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"30 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144202034","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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