Pub Date : 2024-12-02DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023316
Martin Reich, Adam C. Simon
Critical minerals are essential for sustaining the supply chain necessary for the transition to a carbon-free energy source for society. Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earth elements are particularly in demand for batteries and high-performance magnets used in low-carbon technologies. Copper, predominantly sourced from porphyry deposits, is critical for electricity generation, storage, and distribution. Nickel, which comes from laterite and magmatic sulfide deposits, and cobalt, often a by-product of nickel or copper mining, are core components of batteries that power electric vehicles. Lithium, sourced from pegmatite deposits and continental brines, is another key battery component. Rare earth elements, primarily obtained from carbonatite- and regolith-hosted ion-adsorption deposits, have unique magnetic properties that are key for motor efficiency. Future demand for these elements is expected to increase significantly over the next decades, potentially outpacing expected mine production. Therefore, to ensure a successful energy transition, efforts must prioritize addressing substantial challenges in the supply of critical minerals, particularly the delays in exploring and mining new resources to meet growing demands. ▪ The energy transition relies on green technologies needing a secure, sustainable supply of critical minerals sourced from ore deposits worldwide. ▪ Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earth elements are geologically restricted in occurrence, posing challenges for extraction and availability. ▪ Future demand is expected to surge in the next decades, requiring unprecedented production rates to make the green energy transition viable.
{"title":"Critical Minerals","authors":"Martin Reich, Adam C. Simon","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023316","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-023316","url":null,"abstract":"Critical minerals are essential for sustaining the supply chain necessary for the transition to a carbon-free energy source for society. Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earth elements are particularly in demand for batteries and high-performance magnets used in low-carbon technologies. Copper, predominantly sourced from porphyry deposits, is critical for electricity generation, storage, and distribution. Nickel, which comes from laterite and magmatic sulfide deposits, and cobalt, often a by-product of nickel or copper mining, are core components of batteries that power electric vehicles. Lithium, sourced from pegmatite deposits and continental brines, is another key battery component. Rare earth elements, primarily obtained from carbonatite- and regolith-hosted ion-adsorption deposits, have unique magnetic properties that are key for motor efficiency. Future demand for these elements is expected to increase significantly over the next decades, potentially outpacing expected mine production. Therefore, to ensure a successful energy transition, efforts must prioritize addressing substantial challenges in the supply of critical minerals, particularly the delays in exploring and mining new resources to meet growing demands. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The energy transition relies on green technologies needing a secure, sustainable supply of critical minerals sourced from ore deposits worldwide. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earth elements are geologically restricted in occurrence, posing challenges for extraction and availability. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Future demand is expected to surge in the next decades, requiring unprecedented production rates to make the green energy transition viable. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"49 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-12-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142760406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-26DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-024549
Jeremy E. Martin, Klervia Jaouen
Ecologists rely on a wealth of data, including field observations and light stable isotopes, to infer dietary preferences and other ecological and physiological properties in living mammals. But inferring such important traits (e.g., trophic position, metabolism, pathologies) in extinct animals, including humans, can be challenging because biological processes rarely mirror morphology as preserved in the fossil record. For instance, dietary behavior does not necessarily reflect tooth morphology. As an additional challenge, some isotopic mammal tissues commonly used in modern ecology, such as collagen in bone or dentin or keratin from hair, hoof, or horn, do not generally preserve in fossil remains older than ∼200 kyr. In contrast, major constituents of bioapatite often retain their initial isotopic composition through fossilization processes. Recent analytical developments in mass spectrometry now allow, using small samples, for assessment of isotopic variability of major and trace elements such as calcium or zinc. Here, we review the application potentials of metal (nontraditional isotopes) for (paleo)ecological, (paleo)physiological, and (paleo)mobility inferences as applied to mammalian research. ▪ Mammals are key elements of modern ecosystems and possess a rich evolutionary history, yet inferences about their past ecologies and physiologies are challenging to retrieve using traditional geochemical toolkits. ▪ Metal stable isotopes provide a novel and complementary approach to unveil paleoecological and paleophysiological characteristics of extinct mammal species. ▪ Within a 20-year time frame, the core of metal isotopic data in mammalian research remains small compared to traditional isotopic systems (C, O, N), which is inviting for designing cost-effective instrumentation and increasing dissemination across scientific disciplines.
{"title":"Metal Isotopes in Mammalian Tissues","authors":"Jeremy E. Martin, Klervia Jaouen","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-024549","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-024549","url":null,"abstract":"Ecologists rely on a wealth of data, including field observations and light stable isotopes, to infer dietary preferences and other ecological and physiological properties in living mammals. But inferring such important traits (e.g., trophic position, metabolism, pathologies) in extinct animals, including humans, can be challenging because biological processes rarely mirror morphology as preserved in the fossil record. For instance, dietary behavior does not necessarily reflect tooth morphology. As an additional challenge, some isotopic mammal tissues commonly used in modern ecology, such as collagen in bone or dentin or keratin from hair, hoof, or horn, do not generally preserve in fossil remains older than ∼200 kyr. In contrast, major constituents of bioapatite often retain their initial isotopic composition through fossilization processes. Recent analytical developments in mass spectrometry now allow, using small samples, for assessment of isotopic variability of major and trace elements such as calcium or zinc. Here, we review the application potentials of metal (nontraditional isotopes) for (paleo)ecological, (paleo)physiological, and (paleo)mobility inferences as applied to mammalian research. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Mammals are key elements of modern ecosystems and possess a rich evolutionary history, yet inferences about their past ecologies and physiologies are challenging to retrieve using traditional geochemical toolkits. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Metal stable isotopes provide a novel and complementary approach to unveil paleoecological and paleophysiological characteristics of extinct mammal species. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Within a 20-year time frame, the core of metal isotopic data in mammalian research remains small compared to traditional isotopic systems (C, O, N), which is inviting for designing cost-effective instrumentation and increasing dissemination across scientific disciplines. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"182 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-11-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142718178","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-12DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094929
Walter Álvarez
As a field geologist, I have been involved in the overwhelming excitement of three scientific revolutions—a mini revolution in structural geology, the impact-extinction revolution that freed geology from uncompromising uniformitarianism, and the plate tectonic revolution that turned the routine field of geology into one of the most exciting and essential sciences of the present time. I have also worked across several discipline boundaries, an activity I call scientific trespassing. My career has unfolded in such unexpected ways that, like anyone's life and like the history of our planet, it can only be seen as a most improbable journey. A focus on these three concepts and on the history of geology (a traditional name used here for all the Earth sciences) leads to the understanding that geology was once the crown jewel of sciences, and that after a century of necessary but routine geologic mapping, geology now needs to resume its crown jewel role because the understanding and care of our planet is becoming humanity's most urgent task.
{"title":"Geology: The Once and Future Crown Jewel of Science?","authors":"Walter Álvarez","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094929","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094929","url":null,"abstract":"As a field geologist, I have been involved in the overwhelming excitement of three scientific revolutions—a mini revolution in structural geology, the impact-extinction revolution that freed geology from uncompromising uniformitarianism, and the plate tectonic revolution that turned the routine field of geology into one of the most exciting and essential sciences of the present time. I have also worked across several discipline boundaries, an activity I call scientific trespassing. My career has unfolded in such unexpected ways that, like anyone's life and like the history of our planet, it can only be seen as a most improbable journey. A focus on these three concepts and on the history of geology (a traditional name used here for all the Earth sciences) leads to the understanding that geology was once the crown jewel of sciences, and that after a century of necessary but routine geologic mapping, geology now needs to resume its crown jewel role because the understanding and care of our planet is becoming humanity's most urgent task.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"78 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142601012","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-07-23DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-070542
Cara Magnabosco, Fatima Husain, Madeline M. Paoletti, Chris Parsons, Jack G. Payette, Sarah L. Schwartz, Erik Tamre, Gregory P. Fournier
For most of Earth's history life was microbial, with archaeal and bacterial cells mediating biogeochemical cycles through their metabolisms and ecologies. This diversity was sufficient to maintain a habitable planet across dramatic environmental transitions during the Archean and Proterozoic Eons. However, our knowledge of the first 3 billion years of the biosphere pales in comparison to the rich narrative of complex life documented through the Phanerozoic geological record. In this review, we attempt to lay out a microbial natural history framework that highlights recent and ongoing research unifying microbiology, geochemistry, and traditional organismal evolutionary biology, and we propose six broadly applicable principles to aid in these endeavors. In this way, the evolutionary history of microbial life—once considered only a prelude to the much more storied history of complex metazoan life in the Phanerozoic—is finally coming into its own. ▪The outlines of microbial natural history are now starting to appear through the integration of genomic and geological records.▪Microorganisms drive Earth's biogeochemical cycles, and their natural history reflects a coevolution with the planet.▪Past environmental changes have induced microbial biotic transitions, marked by extinction, taxonomic shifts, and new metabolisms and ecologies.▪Microbial evolution can benefit from a historical perspective of processes and successions as established by macropaleontology.
{"title":"Toward a Natural History of Microbial Life","authors":"Cara Magnabosco, Fatima Husain, Madeline M. Paoletti, Chris Parsons, Jack G. Payette, Sarah L. Schwartz, Erik Tamre, Gregory P. Fournier","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-070542","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-070542","url":null,"abstract":"For most of Earth's history life was microbial, with archaeal and bacterial cells mediating biogeochemical cycles through their metabolisms and ecologies. This diversity was sufficient to maintain a habitable planet across dramatic environmental transitions during the Archean and Proterozoic Eons. However, our knowledge of the first 3 billion years of the biosphere pales in comparison to the rich narrative of complex life documented through the Phanerozoic geological record. In this review, we attempt to lay out a microbial natural history framework that highlights recent and ongoing research unifying microbiology, geochemistry, and traditional organismal evolutionary biology, and we propose six broadly applicable principles to aid in these endeavors. In this way, the evolutionary history of microbial life—once considered only a prelude to the much more storied history of complex metazoan life in the Phanerozoic—is finally coming into its own. ▪The outlines of microbial natural history are now starting to appear through the integration of genomic and geological records.▪Microorganisms drive Earth's biogeochemical cycles, and their natural history reflects a coevolution with the planet.▪Past environmental changes have induced microbial biotic transitions, marked by extinction, taxonomic shifts, and new metabolisms and ecologies.▪Microbial evolution can benefit from a historical perspective of processes and successions as established by macropaleontology.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"102 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141755188","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-07-23DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075657
Motohiko Murakami, Amir Khan, Paolo A. Sossi, Maxim D. Ballmer, Pinku Saha
Determining the composition of Earth's lower mantle, which constitutes almost half of its total volume, has been a central goal in the Earth sciences for more than a century given the constraints it places on Earth's origin and evolution. However, whether the major element chemistry of the lower mantle, in the form of, e.g., Mg/Si ratio, is similar to or different from the upper mantle remains debated. Here we use a multidisciplinary approach to address the question of the composition of Earth's lower mantle and, in turn, that of bulk silicate Earth (crust and mantle) by considering the evidence provided by geochemistry, geophysics, mineral physics, and geodynamics. Geochemical and geodynamical evidence largely agrees, indicating a lower-mantle molar Mg/Si of ≥1.12 (≥1.15 for bulk silicate Earth), consistent with the rock record and accumulating evidence for whole-mantle stirring. However, mineral physics–informed profiles of seismic properties, based on a lower mantle made of bridgmanite and ferropericlase, point to Mg/Si ∼ 0.9–1.0 when compared with radial seismic reference models. This highlights the importance of considering the presence of additional minerals (e.g., calcium-perovskite and stishovite) and possibly suggests a lower mantle varying compositionally with depth. In closing, we discuss how we can improve our understanding of lower-mantle and bulk silicate Earth composition, including its impact on the light element budget of the core. ▪The chemical composition of Earth's lower mantle is indispensable for understanding its origin and evolution.▪Earth's lower-mantle composition is reviewed from an integrated mineral physics, geophysical, geochemical, and geodynamical perspective.▪A lower-mantle molar Mg/Si of ≥1.12 is favored but not unique.▪New experiments investigating compositional effects of bridgmanite and ferropericlase elasticity are needed to further our insight.
{"title":"The Composition of Earth's Lower Mantle","authors":"Motohiko Murakami, Amir Khan, Paolo A. Sossi, Maxim D. Ballmer, Pinku Saha","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075657","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075657","url":null,"abstract":"Determining the composition of Earth's lower mantle, which constitutes almost half of its total volume, has been a central goal in the Earth sciences for more than a century given the constraints it places on Earth's origin and evolution. However, whether the major element chemistry of the lower mantle, in the form of, e.g., Mg/Si ratio, is similar to or different from the upper mantle remains debated. Here we use a multidisciplinary approach to address the question of the composition of Earth's lower mantle and, in turn, that of bulk silicate Earth (crust and mantle) by considering the evidence provided by geochemistry, geophysics, mineral physics, and geodynamics. Geochemical and geodynamical evidence largely agrees, indicating a lower-mantle molar Mg/Si of ≥1.12 (≥1.15 for bulk silicate Earth), consistent with the rock record and accumulating evidence for whole-mantle stirring. However, mineral physics–informed profiles of seismic properties, based on a lower mantle made of bridgmanite and ferropericlase, point to Mg/Si ∼ 0.9–1.0 when compared with radial seismic reference models. This highlights the importance of considering the presence of additional minerals (e.g., calcium-perovskite and stishovite) and possibly suggests a lower mantle varying compositionally with depth. In closing, we discuss how we can improve our understanding of lower-mantle and bulk silicate Earth composition, including its impact on the light element budget of the core. ▪The chemical composition of Earth's lower mantle is indispensable for understanding its origin and evolution.▪Earth's lower-mantle composition is reviewed from an integrated mineral physics, geophysical, geochemical, and geodynamical perspective.▪A lower-mantle molar Mg/Si of ≥1.12 is favored but not unique.▪New experiments investigating compositional effects of bridgmanite and ferropericlase elasticity are needed to further our insight.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141755199","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-07-23DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-111915
Peter Molnar
Readers will be led down a random path from continental dynamics to paleoclimate. A key to understanding continental dynamics is recognizing that differences in gravitational potential energy per unit area between high and low terrain govern much of large-scale continental deformation. Removal of mantle lithosphere, not just crustal thickening, plays a crucial, but difficult-to-test, role in changes in surface elevation. Although measuring past surface heights remains a challenge, indications of such processes suggest that surface uplift associated with such removal can affect relative plate motion. Climate change, from a warmer to cooler climate, and associated changes in erosion and sedimentation introduce further complications to determining past elevations. The phenomena that led to such cooling include a number of possibilities, but I favor the emergence of islands in the Maritime continent, which transformed the Pacific Ocean from one with a warm eastern tropical Pacific, as during El Niño events, to the present-day La Niña–like background state. Teleconnections from the eastern tropical Pacific to Canada affect the duration of summers and the potential of high-latitude ice to accumulate. ▪Lateral gradients in gravitational potential energy per unit area (GPE), a force per unit length, govern large-scale continental dynamics.▪Removal of mantle lithosphere and thickening of crust raise GPE; knowledge of mean surface elevations provides a test of these processes.▪Climate change from a warmer to cooler climate and from one with less to more erosion can give the false impression of elevation change.▪Emergence of Indonesian islands, more rain over them, a stronger Walker Circulation, and cooler eastern Pacific may have led to ice ages.
{"title":"Autobiography: A 50-Year Quest for Understanding in Geoscience","authors":"Peter Molnar","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-111915","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-111915","url":null,"abstract":"Readers will be led down a random path from continental dynamics to paleoclimate. A key to understanding continental dynamics is recognizing that differences in gravitational potential energy per unit area between high and low terrain govern much of large-scale continental deformation. Removal of mantle lithosphere, not just crustal thickening, plays a crucial, but difficult-to-test, role in changes in surface elevation. Although measuring past surface heights remains a challenge, indications of such processes suggest that surface uplift associated with such removal can affect relative plate motion. Climate change, from a warmer to cooler climate, and associated changes in erosion and sedimentation introduce further complications to determining past elevations. The phenomena that led to such cooling include a number of possibilities, but I favor the emergence of islands in the Maritime continent, which transformed the Pacific Ocean from one with a warm eastern tropical Pacific, as during El Niño events, to the present-day La Niña–like background state. Teleconnections from the eastern tropical Pacific to Canada affect the duration of summers and the potential of high-latitude ice to accumulate. ▪Lateral gradients in gravitational potential energy per unit area (GPE), a force per unit length, govern large-scale continental dynamics.▪Removal of mantle lithosphere and thickening of crust raise GPE; knowledge of mean surface elevations provides a test of these processes.▪Climate change from a warmer to cooler climate and from one with less to more erosion can give the false impression of elevation change.▪Emergence of Indonesian islands, more rain over them, a stronger Walker Circulation, and cooler eastern Pacific may have led to ice ages.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141755156","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-04-10DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-052623-075856
Leonard S. Sklar
Earth's terrestrial topography evolves in response to the interaction of tectonics, climate, and lithology. Recent discoveries suggest that the grain size of sediments produced on hillslopes and transported through river networks is key to understanding these interactions. Hillslope grain size varies systematically with erosion rate and residence time, the degree of chemical and physical weathering, and the fracture density and susceptibility to weathering of rock. Variations in initial grain size strongly influence the spatial evolution of grain size distributions as particles mix and wear during downstream transport through channel networks. In rivers, the size and flux of the coarse fraction of the sediment load control the rate of incision into bedrock and thus govern channel slope and ultimately the relief of actively eroding landscapes. These relationships suggest that a primary way that tectonics, climate, and lithology influence landscape evolution is through their controls on sediment grain size. ▪ Recent research reveals the central role of sediment grain size in controlling bedrock river morphodynamics, linking grain size to channel slope and topographic relief. ▪ Tectonics, climate, and lithology govern the size of sediments produced on hillslopes; hence, grain size mediates their influence on landscape evolution. ▪ Feedbacks linking sediment grain size, topography, weathering, erosion, and sediment transport provide new opportunities for advances in Earth surface science.
{"title":"Grain Size in Landscapes","authors":"Leonard S. Sklar","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-052623-075856","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-052623-075856","url":null,"abstract":"Earth's terrestrial topography evolves in response to the interaction of tectonics, climate, and lithology. Recent discoveries suggest that the grain size of sediments produced on hillslopes and transported through river networks is key to understanding these interactions. Hillslope grain size varies systematically with erosion rate and residence time, the degree of chemical and physical weathering, and the fracture density and susceptibility to weathering of rock. Variations in initial grain size strongly influence the spatial evolution of grain size distributions as particles mix and wear during downstream transport through channel networks. In rivers, the size and flux of the coarse fraction of the sediment load control the rate of incision into bedrock and thus govern channel slope and ultimately the relief of actively eroding landscapes. These relationships suggest that a primary way that tectonics, climate, and lithology influence landscape evolution is through their controls on sediment grain size. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Recent research reveals the central role of sediment grain size in controlling bedrock river morphodynamics, linking grain size to channel slope and topographic relief. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Tectonics, climate, and lithology govern the size of sediments produced on hillslopes; hence, grain size mediates their influence on landscape evolution. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Feedbacks linking sediment grain size, topography, weathering, erosion, and sediment transport provide new opportunities for advances in Earth surface science. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"98 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-04-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140545093","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
India's diverse vegetation and landscapes provide an opportunity to understand the responses of vegetation to climate change. By examining pollen and fossil records along with carbon isotopes of organic matter and leaf wax, this review uncovers the rich vegetational history of India. Notably, during the late Miocene (8 to 6 Ma), the transition from C3 to C4 plants in lowland regions was a pivotal ecological shift, with fluctuations in their abundance during the late Quaternary (100 ka to the present). In India, the global phenomenon of C4 expansion was driven by the combined feedback of climate variations, changes in substrate conditions, and habitat disturbances. The Himalayan region has experienced profound transformations, including tree-line migrations, shifts in flowering and fruiting times, species loss, and shifts in plant communities due to changing monsoons and westerlies. Coastal areas, characterized by mangroves, have been dynamically influenced by changing sea extents driven by climate changes. In arid desert regions, the interplay between summer and westerlies rainfall has shaped vegetation composition. This review explores vegetation and climate history since 14 Ma and emphasizes the need for more isotope data from contemporary plants, precise sediment dating, and a better understanding of fire's role in shaping vegetation. ▪ This review highlights diverse vegetation and landscapes of India as a valuable source for understanding the vegetation-climate link during the last 14 Ma . ▪ A significant ecological shift occurred during 8 to 6 Ma in India, marked by the transition from C3 to C4 plants in the lowland regions. ▪ This review emphasizes the importance of more isotope data, precise sediment dating, and a better understanding of fire's role in shaping vegetation.Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 52 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"The Geologic History of Plants and Climate in India","authors":"Prasanta Sanyal, Sourav Priyam Adhya, Ritwick Mandal, Biswajit Roy, Bibhasvata Dasgupta, Santrupta Samantaray, Rahul Sen, Vijayananda Sarangi, Anurag Kumar, Deepak K. Jha, Ajay Ajay","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-102442","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-102442","url":null,"abstract":"India's diverse vegetation and landscapes provide an opportunity to understand the responses of vegetation to climate change. By examining pollen and fossil records along with carbon isotopes of organic matter and leaf wax, this review uncovers the rich vegetational history of India. Notably, during the late Miocene (8 to 6 Ma), the transition from C<jats:sub>3</jats:sub> to C<jats:sub>4</jats:sub> plants in lowland regions was a pivotal ecological shift, with fluctuations in their abundance during the late Quaternary (100 ka to the present). In India, the global phenomenon of C<jats:sub>4</jats:sub> expansion was driven by the combined feedback of climate variations, changes in substrate conditions, and habitat disturbances. The Himalayan region has experienced profound transformations, including tree-line migrations, shifts in flowering and fruiting times, species loss, and shifts in plant communities due to changing monsoons and westerlies. Coastal areas, characterized by mangroves, have been dynamically influenced by changing sea extents driven by climate changes. In arid desert regions, the interplay between summer and westerlies rainfall has shaped vegetation composition. This review explores vegetation and climate history since 14 Ma and emphasizes the need for more isotope data from contemporary plants, precise sediment dating, and a better understanding of fire's role in shaping vegetation. ▪ This review highlights diverse vegetation and landscapes of India as a valuable source for understanding the vegetation-climate link during the last 14 Ma . ▪ A significant ecological shift occurred during 8 to 6 Ma in India, marked by the transition from C<jats:sub>3</jats:sub> to C<jats:sub>4</jats:sub> plants in the lowland regions. ▪ This review emphasizes the importance of more isotope data, precise sediment dating, and a better understanding of fire's role in shaping vegetation.Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 52 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"8 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140015509","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-02-21DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-115229
Maureen D. Long
Continental lithosphere is deformed, destroyed, or otherwise modified in several ways. Processes that modify the lithosphere include subduction, terrane accretion, orogenesis, rifting, volcanism/magmatism, lithospheric loss or delamination, small-scale or edge-driven convection, and plume-lithosphere interaction. The eastern North American margin (ENAM) provides an exceptional locale to study this broad suite of processes, having undergone multiple complete Wilson cycles of supercontinent formation and dispersal, along with ∼200 Ma of postrift evolution. Moreover, recent data collection efforts associated with EarthScope, GeoPRISMS, and related projects have led to a wealth of new observations in eastern North America. Here I highlight recent advances in our understanding of the structure of the continental lithosphere beneath eastern North America and the processes that have modified it through geologic time, with a focus on recent geophysical imaging that has illuminated the lithosphere in unprecedented detail. ▪ Eastern North America experienced a range of processes that deform, destroy, or modify continental lithosphere, providing new insights into how lithosphere evolves through time. ▪ Subduction and terrane accretion, continental rifting, and postrift evolution have all played a role in shaping lithospheric structure beneath eastern North America. ▪ Relict structures from past tectonic events are well-preserved in ENAM lithosphere; however, lithospheric modification that postdates the breakup of Pangea has also been significant.Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 52 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Pub Date : 2024-02-21DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-111322
Stephen J. Gallagher, Gerald Auer, Chris M. Brierley, Craig S. Fulthorpe, Robert Hall
The tectonically complex Indonesian Gateway is part of the global thermohaline circulation and exerts a major control on climate. Waters from the Pacific flow through the Indonesian Archipelago into the Indian Ocean via the Indonesian Throughflow. Much progress has been made toward understanding the near-modern history of the Indonesian Gateway. However, the longer-term climate and ocean consequences of Australia's progressive collision with the Eurasian Plate that created it are less known. The gateway initiated ∼23 Ma, when Australia collided with Southeast Asia. By ∼10 Ma the gateway was sufficiently restricted to create a proto–warm pool. During the Pliocene it alternated between more or less restricted conditions, until modern oceanic conditions were established by 2.7 Ma. Despite its tectonic complexity, climate modeling and Indian and Pacific scientific ocean drilling research continue to yield insights into the gateway's deep history. ▪ The Indonesian Gateway is a key branch of global thermohaline oceanic circulation, exerting a major control on Earth's climate over the last the 25 Myr. ▪ We find that a complex interplay of tectonics and sea level has controlled Indonesian Gateway restriction since 12 Myr, resulting in La Niña– and El Niño–like states in the equatorial Pacific ▪ Long term Indonesian Gateway history is best determined from ocean drilling cores on the Indian and Pacific sides of the Indonesian Gateway, as records from within it are typically disrupted by tectonics. ▪ Model simulations show the global impact of the Indonesian Gateway. Further modeling with ocean drilling/tectonic research will enhance our understanding of Cenozoic Indonesian Gateway history.Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 52 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
构造复杂的印度尼西亚门户是全球温盐环流的一部分，对气候具有重要的控制作用。来自太平洋的水流通过印尼群岛，经由印尼贯穿流进入印度洋。在了解印度尼西亚通道的近现代历史方面已经取得了很大进展。然而，人们对澳大利亚与欧亚板块逐渐碰撞造成的长期气候和海洋后果却知之甚少。当澳大利亚与东南亚发生碰撞时，该门户于 23 Ma ∼ 23 Ma 开始形成。到 ∼10 Ma 时，门户受到了足够的限制，从而形成了一个原生暖池。在上新世期间，它在或多或少的限制条件之间交替变化，直到 2.7 Ma 建立起现代的海洋条件。尽管其构造复杂，气候建模以及印度洋和太平洋科学海洋钻探研究仍在继续深入了解该通道的深层历史。印度尼西亚门户是全球温盐海洋环流的一个重要分支，在过去的 2500 万年中对地球气候起着重要的控制作用。我们发现，自 1200 万年以来，构造和海平面的复杂相互作用控制着印度尼西亚门户的限制，导致赤道太平洋出现类似拉尼娜和厄尔尼诺的状态。模型模拟显示了印度尼西亚门户对全球的影响。结合大洋钻探/构造研究的进一步建模将加深我们对新生代印度尼西亚门户历史的了解。《地球与行星科学年刊》第 52 卷的最终在线出版日期预计为 2024 年 5 月。修订后的预计日期请参见 http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates。
{"title":"Cenozoic History of the Indonesian Gateway","authors":"Stephen J. Gallagher, Gerald Auer, Chris M. Brierley, Craig S. Fulthorpe, Robert Hall","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-111322","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-111322","url":null,"abstract":"The tectonically complex Indonesian Gateway is part of the global thermohaline circulation and exerts a major control on climate. Waters from the Pacific flow through the Indonesian Archipelago into the Indian Ocean via the Indonesian Throughflow. Much progress has been made toward understanding the near-modern history of the Indonesian Gateway. However, the longer-term climate and ocean consequences of Australia's progressive collision with the Eurasian Plate that created it are less known. The gateway initiated ∼23 Ma, when Australia collided with Southeast Asia. By ∼10 Ma the gateway was sufficiently restricted to create a proto–warm pool. During the Pliocene it alternated between more or less restricted conditions, until modern oceanic conditions were established by 2.7 Ma. Despite its tectonic complexity, climate modeling and Indian and Pacific scientific ocean drilling research continue to yield insights into the gateway's deep history. ▪ The Indonesian Gateway is a key branch of global thermohaline oceanic circulation, exerting a major control on Earth's climate over the last the 25 Myr. ▪ We find that a complex interplay of tectonics and sea level has controlled Indonesian Gateway restriction since 12 Myr, resulting in La Niña– and El Niño–like states in the equatorial Pacific ▪ Long term Indonesian Gateway history is best determined from ocean drilling cores on the Indian and Pacific sides of the Indonesian Gateway, as records from within it are typically disrupted by tectonics. ▪ Model simulations show the global impact of the Indonesian Gateway. Further modeling with ocean drilling/tectonic research will enhance our understanding of Cenozoic Indonesian Gateway history.Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 52 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"2020 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2024-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139924348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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