Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-095654
Rebecca J. Carey, David A. Butterfield, Malcolm R. Clark
More than 70% of Earth's magmatic output occurs in the ocean. This volcanism shapes major features of the seafloor, directly impacts the chemical composition of the oceans through water/rock interactions, and drives hydrothermal circulation of seawater. The formation of seafloor mineral deposits and chemosynthetic habitats that encircle the globe along mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and hotspots is driven by volcanism. The style, magnitude, depth, and frequency of seafloor eruptions create a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological impacts on the seafloor. Research and exploration over the past 30 years have revealed some of the diversity of seafloor eruptions and their impact on the undersea environment. ▪ Submarine eruptions are simultaneously the most common and the least observed form of volcanism on Earth. ▪ Hydrostatic pressure at the vent depth modulates explosive versus effusive eruption and the form of eruptive behavior. ▪ Submarine eruptions have significant impacts on marine biological communities and chemical fluxes to the ocean. ▪ Resilience of fauna to eruption events is also variable, and recovery dynamics can be slow with many years or decades required for communities to reform.
{"title":"Submarine Volcanic Eruptions and Their Impacts on Hydrothermal Systems and Biological Communities","authors":"Rebecca J. Carey, David A. Butterfield, Malcolm R. Clark","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-095654","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040522-095654","url":null,"abstract":"More than 70% of Earth's magmatic output occurs in the ocean. This volcanism shapes major features of the seafloor, directly impacts the chemical composition of the oceans through water/rock interactions, and drives hydrothermal circulation of seawater. The formation of seafloor mineral deposits and chemosynthetic habitats that encircle the globe along mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and hotspots is driven by volcanism. The style, magnitude, depth, and frequency of seafloor eruptions create a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological impacts on the seafloor. Research and exploration over the past 30 years have revealed some of the diversity of seafloor eruptions and their impact on the undersea environment. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Submarine eruptions are simultaneously the most common and the least observed form of volcanism on Earth. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Hydrostatic pressure at the vent depth modulates explosive versus effusive eruption and the form of eruptive behavior. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Submarine eruptions have significant impacts on marine biological communities and chemical fluxes to the ocean. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Resilience of fauna to eruption events is also variable, and recovery dynamics can be slow with many years or decades required for communities to reform. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"61 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144184173","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094742
Alexandra Navrotsky, Manuel Scharrer
Chalcogenides (sulfides, selenides, tellurides, arsenides, antimonides) are important in natural processes, including formation of ore deposits on Earth, early stages of planetary accretion, and formation of condensates in planetary atmospheres. Their physicochemical properties render them suitable for a wide range of industrial applications. While thermodynamic data are available for many endmembers, there are significant gaps in both thermodynamic and associated structural constraints, especially for complex systems. The continuous evolution of high temperature calorimetry into oxidative drop solution calorimetry has facilitated the measurement of enthalpies of formation and mixing and surface energies involving nonoxides, including chalcogenides. These are essential for modeling processes in nature and technology and for understanding the underlying properties that define their stabilities. This article reviews the development of these calorimetric techniques and summarizes available thermochemical data for common chalcogenides. ▪ Over the last century, calorimetric instruments and techniques have evolved to enable accurate measurement of a wide range of materials, including chalcogenides. ▪ Despite the growing interest in the thermodynamic characterization of chalcogenides, a systematic review of the available data indicates that there is still a significant scope for further research. ▪ A systematic understanding of chalcogenides will facilitate the modeling of geological environments and enable the prediction and improvement of geo-inspired materials for industrial applications.
{"title":"Experimental Thermochemistry Through the Years with Application to Chalcogenides","authors":"Alexandra Navrotsky, Manuel Scharrer","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094742","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-041023-094742","url":null,"abstract":"Chalcogenides (sulfides, selenides, tellurides, arsenides, antimonides) are important in natural processes, including formation of ore deposits on Earth, early stages of planetary accretion, and formation of condensates in planetary atmospheres. Their physicochemical properties render them suitable for a wide range of industrial applications. While thermodynamic data are available for many endmembers, there are significant gaps in both thermodynamic and associated structural constraints, especially for complex systems. The continuous evolution of high temperature calorimetry into oxidative drop solution calorimetry has facilitated the measurement of enthalpies of formation and mixing and surface energies involving nonoxides, including chalcogenides. These are essential for modeling processes in nature and technology and for understanding the underlying properties that define their stabilities. This article reviews the development of these calorimetric techniques and summarizes available thermochemical data for common chalcogenides. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Over the last century, calorimetric instruments and techniques have evolved to enable accurate measurement of a wide range of materials, including chalcogenides. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Despite the growing interest in the thermodynamic characterization of chalcogenides, a systematic review of the available data indicates that there is still a significant scope for further research. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> A systematic understanding of chalcogenides will facilitate the modeling of geological environments and enable the prediction and improvement of geo-inspired materials for industrial applications. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"30 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144202034","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-105544
Seth D. Burgess, Benjamin A. Black
Emplacement of the Siberian Traps large igneous province (LIP) around 252 Ma coincided with the most profound environmental disruption of the past 500 million years. The enormous volume of the Siberian Traps, its ability to generate greenhouse gases and other volatiles, and a temporal coincidence with extinction all suggest a causal link. Patterns of marine and terrestrial extinction/recovery are consistent with environmental stresses potentially triggered by the Siberian Traps. However, the nature of causal links between the LIP and mass extinction remains enigmatic. Understanding the origins, anatomy, and forcing potential of the Siberian Traps LIP and the spatiotemporal patterns of resulting stresses represents a critical counterpart to high-resolution fossil and proxy records of Permian–Triassic environmental and biotic shifts. This review provides a summary of recent advances and key questions regarding the Siberian Traps in an effort to illuminate what combination of factors made the Siberian Traps a uniquely deadly LIP. ▪ Large igneous provinces such as the Siberian Traps are capable of triggering global environmental destabilization. ▪ Greenhouse gases generated by Siberian Traps magmatism played a major role in driving the climate changes that triggered the end-Permian mass extinction. ▪ The end-Permian extinction fundamentally altered the evolutionary trajectory of Earth's biosphere, creating ecological space for many of the organisms seen today. ▪ Determining the timing and patterns of end-Permian marine and terrestrial mortality and recovery and the timing and character of Siberian Traps magmatism is key in understanding the causal link between magmatism and extinction. ▪ Understanding the cause(s) of past extinction events informs hypotheses about current and future environmental destabilization.
{"title":"The Anatomy and Lethality of the Siberian Traps Large Igneous Province","authors":"Seth D. Burgess, Benjamin A. Black","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-105544","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-105544","url":null,"abstract":"Emplacement of the Siberian Traps large igneous province (LIP) around 252 Ma coincided with the most profound environmental disruption of the past 500 million years. The enormous volume of the Siberian Traps, its ability to generate greenhouse gases and other volatiles, and a temporal coincidence with extinction all suggest a causal link. Patterns of marine and terrestrial extinction/recovery are consistent with environmental stresses potentially triggered by the Siberian Traps. However, the nature of causal links between the LIP and mass extinction remains enigmatic. Understanding the origins, anatomy, and forcing potential of the Siberian Traps LIP and the spatiotemporal patterns of resulting stresses represents a critical counterpart to high-resolution fossil and proxy records of Permian–Triassic environmental and biotic shifts. This review provides a summary of recent advances and key questions regarding the Siberian Traps in an effort to illuminate what combination of factors made the Siberian Traps a uniquely deadly LIP. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Large igneous provinces such as the Siberian Traps are capable of triggering global environmental destabilization. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Greenhouse gases generated by Siberian Traps magmatism played a major role in driving the climate changes that triggered the end-Permian mass extinction. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The end-Permian extinction fundamentally altered the evolutionary trajectory of Earth's biosphere, creating ecological space for many of the organisms seen today. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Determining the timing and patterns of end-Permian marine and terrestrial mortality and recovery and the timing and character of Siberian Traps magmatism is key in understanding the causal link between magmatism and extinction. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Understanding the cause(s) of past extinction events informs hypotheses about current and future environmental destabilization. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"81 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144183941","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-080723-082338
Catherine Badgley, John Barry, Anna K. Behrensmeyer, Thure Cerling, Lawrence J. Flynn, Michèle E. Morgan, David Pilbeam
The continental fossil record has exceptional, long sequences of fossiliferous strata that are the basis for evaluating ecosystem dynamics and their formative influences. The Siwalik sequence of South Asia is one example. It occurs in the Potwar Plateau (Punjab Province, Pakistan) and spans 18–1 Ma. The sequence consists of alluvial sediments deposited in a foreland basin created by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Sediments representing large and small river channels and their associated floodplain deposits correspond to mountain-sourced large rivers and foothill-sourced smaller rivers. Vegetation attributes are recorded in stable carbon isotopes and biomarkers in paleosols. Molluscs, fishes, crocodilians, turtles, lizards, snakes, birds, and mammals are preserved throughout the sequence. Mammalian faunas had exceptionally high species richness (116 species) at their peak and included up to 18 species of co-occurring megaherbivores (>800 kg). Significant changes over time in species richness, taxonomic composition, and ecological structure of mammalian faunas coincided with major changes in climate and vegetation. ▪ Siwalik strata and fossils document a long continuous sequence of South Asian continental sediments and ecosystems south of the Himalaya Mountains. ▪ A multidisciplinary analysis of tectonics, fluvial systems, climate history, and vertebrate diversity documents ecosystem dynamics from 18 to 6 million years ago. ▪ A sparse portion of the Siwalik record coinciding with the Miocene Climatic Optimum raises the possibility that humid heat stress limited occupancy of the floodplain by most mammals for much of this time. ▪ The timing and magnitude of change in mammalian species richness and ecological structure are consistent with environmental forcing as a significant influence on these features.
{"title":"Fifty Years in the Foothills: Ecosystem Evolution in the Neogene Siwalik Record of Pakistan","authors":"Catherine Badgley, John Barry, Anna K. Behrensmeyer, Thure Cerling, Lawrence J. Flynn, Michèle E. Morgan, David Pilbeam","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-080723-082338","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-080723-082338","url":null,"abstract":"The continental fossil record has exceptional, long sequences of fossiliferous strata that are the basis for evaluating ecosystem dynamics and their formative influences. The Siwalik sequence of South Asia is one example. It occurs in the Potwar Plateau (Punjab Province, Pakistan) and spans 18–1 Ma. The sequence consists of alluvial sediments deposited in a foreland basin created by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Sediments representing large and small river channels and their associated floodplain deposits correspond to mountain-sourced large rivers and foothill-sourced smaller rivers. Vegetation attributes are recorded in stable carbon isotopes and biomarkers in paleosols. Molluscs, fishes, crocodilians, turtles, lizards, snakes, birds, and mammals are preserved throughout the sequence. Mammalian faunas had exceptionally high species richness (116 species) at their peak and included up to 18 species of co-occurring megaherbivores (>800 kg). Significant changes over time in species richness, taxonomic composition, and ecological structure of mammalian faunas coincided with major changes in climate and vegetation. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Siwalik strata and fossils document a long continuous sequence of South Asian continental sediments and ecosystems south of the Himalaya Mountains. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> A multidisciplinary analysis of tectonics, fluvial systems, climate history, and vertebrate diversity documents ecosystem dynamics from 18 to 6 million years ago. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> A sparse portion of the Siwalik record coinciding with the Miocene Climatic Optimum raises the possibility that humid heat stress limited occupancy of the floodplain by most mammals for much of this time. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The timing and magnitude of change in mammalian species richness and ecological structure are consistent with environmental forcing as a significant influence on these features. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"12 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144184168","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-03-10DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-064209
Jessica E. Tierney, Emily J. Judd, Matthew B. Osman, Jonathan M. King, Olivia J. Truax, Nathan J. Steiger, Daniel E. Amrhein, Kevin J. Anchukaitis
Reconstructions of past climates in both time and space provide important insight into the range and rate of change within the climate system. However, producing a coherent global picture of past climates is difficult because indicators of past environmental changes (proxy data) are unevenly distributed and uncertain. In recent years, paleoclimate data assimilation (paleoDA), which statistically combines model simulations with proxy data, has become an increasingly popular reconstruction method. Here, we describe advances in paleoDA to date, with a focus on the offline ensemble Kalman filter and the insights into climate change that this method affords. PaleoDA has considerable strengths in that it can blend multiple types of information while also propagating uncertainty. Drawbacks of the methodology include an overreliance on the climate model and variance loss. We conclude with an outlook on possible expansions and improvements in paleoDA that can be made in the upcoming years.▪ Paleoclimate data assimilation blends model and proxy information to enable spatiotemporal reconstructions of past climate change. ▪ This method has advanced our understanding of global temperature change, Earth's climate sensitivity, and past climate dynamics. ▪ Future innovations could improve the method by implementing online paleoclimate data assimilation and smoothers.
在时间和空间上对过去气候的重建为了解气候系统的变化范围和速度提供了重要的见解。然而，由于过去环境变化的指标（代理数据）分布不均且不确定，因此很难对过去的气候形成连贯的全球图景。近年来，将模式模拟与代理数据进行统计结合的古气候数据同化（paleclimate data assimilation，简称palaeda）已成为一种日益流行的重建方法。在这里，我们描述了迄今为止古数据分析的进展，重点是离线集合卡尔曼滤波和该方法提供的对气候变化的见解。古数据分析具有相当大的优势，因为它可以混合多种类型的信息，同时也传播不确定性。该方法的缺点包括过度依赖气候模式和方差损失。最后，我们展望了未来几年古第三纪可能的扩展和改进。▪古气候数据同化混合模型和代理信息，使过去气候变化的时空重建成为可能。▪这种方法提高了我们对全球温度变化、地球气候敏感性和过去气候动力学的理解。▪未来的创新可以通过实施在线古气候数据同化和平滑来改进该方法。
{"title":"Advances in Paleoclimate Data Assimilation","authors":"Jessica E. Tierney, Emily J. Judd, Matthew B. Osman, Jonathan M. King, Olivia J. Truax, Nathan J. Steiger, Daniel E. Amrhein, Kevin J. Anchukaitis","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-064209","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-064209","url":null,"abstract":"Reconstructions of past climates in both time and space provide important insight into the range and rate of change within the climate system. However, producing a coherent global picture of past climates is difficult because indicators of past environmental changes (proxy data) are unevenly distributed and uncertain. In recent years, paleoclimate data assimilation (paleoDA), which statistically combines model simulations with proxy data, has become an increasingly popular reconstruction method. Here, we describe advances in paleoDA to date, with a focus on the offline ensemble Kalman filter and the insights into climate change that this method affords. PaleoDA has considerable strengths in that it can blend multiple types of information while also propagating uncertainty. Drawbacks of the methodology include an overreliance on the climate model and variance loss. We conclude with an outlook on possible expansions and improvements in paleoDA that can be made in the upcoming years.<jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Paleoclimate data assimilation blends model and proxy information to enable spatiotemporal reconstructions of past climate change. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> This method has advanced our understanding of global temperature change, Earth's climate sensitivity, and past climate dynamics. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Future innovations could improve the method by implementing online paleoclimate data assimilation and smoothers. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143589779","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-27DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-114630
Kristin D. Bergmann, Francis A. Macdonald, Nicholas L. Swanson-Hysell
A long-term cooling trend through the Ordovician Period, from 487 to 443 Ma, is recorded by oxygen isotope data. Tropical ocean basins in the Early Ordovician were hot, which led to low oxygen concentrations in the surface ocean due to the temperature dependence of oxygen solubility. Elevated temperatures also increased metabolic demands such that hot shallow water environments had limited animal diversity as recorded by microbially dominated carbonates. As the oceans cooled through the Ordovician, animal biodiversity increased, leading to the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. The protracted nature of the cooling suggests that it was the product of progressive changes in tectonic boundary conditions. Low-latitude arc-continent collisions through this period may have increased global weatherability and decreased atmospheric CO2 levels. Additionally, decreasing continental arc magmatism could have lowered CO2 outgassing fluxes. The Ordovician long-term cooling trend culminated with the development of a large south polar ice sheet on Gondwana. The timescale of major ice growth and decay over the final 2 Myr of the Ordovician is consistent with Pleistocene-like glacial cycles driven by orbital forcing. The short duration of large-scale glaciation indicates a high sensitivity of ice volume to temperature with a strongly nonlinear response, providing a valuable analog for Neogene and future climate change. ▪ Oxygen isotope data record progressive and protracted cooling through the Ordovician leading up to the onset of Hirnantian glaciation. ▪ The gradual cooling trend is mirrored by an Ordovician radiation in biological diversity, consistent with temperature-dependent oxygen solubility and metabolism as a primary control. ▪ Long-term cooling occurred in concert with low-latitude arc-continent collisions and an increase in global weatherability. Although CO2 outgassing may have also decreased with an Ordovician decrease in continental arc length, in the modern, CO2 outgassing is variable along both continental and island arcs, leaving the relationship between continental arc length and climate uncertain. ▪ Evidence for significant ice growth is limited to less than 2 Myr of the Hirnantian Stage, suggesting a high sensitivity of ice growth to pCO2 and temperature. ▪ Independent estimates for ice volume, area, and sea level change during the Hirnantian glacial maximum are internally consistent and comparable to those of the Last Glacial Maximum.
{"title":"The Causes and Consequences of Ordovician Cooling","authors":"Kristin D. Bergmann, Francis A. Macdonald, Nicholas L. Swanson-Hysell","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-114630","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-114630","url":null,"abstract":"A long-term cooling trend through the Ordovician Period, from 487 to 443 Ma, is recorded by oxygen isotope data. Tropical ocean basins in the Early Ordovician were hot, which led to low oxygen concentrations in the surface ocean due to the temperature dependence of oxygen solubility. Elevated temperatures also increased metabolic demands such that hot shallow water environments had limited animal diversity as recorded by microbially dominated carbonates. As the oceans cooled through the Ordovician, animal biodiversity increased, leading to the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. The protracted nature of the cooling suggests that it was the product of progressive changes in tectonic boundary conditions. Low-latitude arc-continent collisions through this period may have increased global weatherability and decreased atmospheric CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub> levels. Additionally, decreasing continental arc magmatism could have lowered CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub> outgassing fluxes. The Ordovician long-term cooling trend culminated with the development of a large south polar ice sheet on Gondwana. The timescale of major ice growth and decay over the final 2 Myr of the Ordovician is consistent with Pleistocene-like glacial cycles driven by orbital forcing. The short duration of large-scale glaciation indicates a high sensitivity of ice volume to temperature with a strongly nonlinear response, providing a valuable analog for Neogene and future climate change. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Oxygen isotope data record progressive and protracted cooling through the Ordovician leading up to the onset of Hirnantian glaciation. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The gradual cooling trend is mirrored by an Ordovician radiation in biological diversity, consistent with temperature-dependent oxygen solubility and metabolism as a primary control. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Long-term cooling occurred in concert with low-latitude arc-continent collisions and an increase in global weatherability. Although CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub> outgassing may have also decreased with an Ordovician decrease in continental arc length, in the modern, CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub> outgassing is variable along both continental and island arcs, leaving the relationship between continental arc length and climate uncertain. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Evidence for significant ice growth is limited to less than 2 Myr of the Hirnantian Stage, suggesting a high sensitivity of ice growth to <jats:italic>p</jats:italic>CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub> and temperature. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Independent estimates for ice volume, area, and sea level change during the Hirnantian glacial maximum are internally consistent and comparable to those of the Last Glacial Maximum. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-02-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143518730","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-21DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-020630
Naomi M. Levine, Harriet Alexander, Erin M. Bertrand, Victoria J. Coles, Stephanie Dutkiewicz, Suzana G. Leles, Emily J. Zakem
The oceans contain large reservoirs of inorganic and organic carbon and play a critical role in both global carbon cycling and climate. Most of the biogeochemical transformations in the oceans are driven by marine microbes. Thus, molecular processes occurring at the scale of single cells govern global geochemical dynamics, posing a challenge of scales. Understanding the processes controlling ocean carbon cycling from the cellular to the global scale requires the integration of multiple disciplines including microbiology, ecology, biogeochemistry, and computational fields such as numerical models and bioinformatics. A shared language and foundational knowledge will facilitate these interactions. This review provides the state of knowledge on the role marine microbes play in large-scale ocean carbon cycling through the lens of observational oceanography and biogeochemical models. We conclude by outlining ways in which the field can bridge the gap between -omics datasets and ocean models to understand ocean carbon cycling across scales. ▪ -Omic approaches are providing increasingly quantitative insight into the biogeochemical functions of marine microbial ecosystems. ▪ Numerical models provide a tool for studying global carbon cycling by scaling from the microscale to the global scale. ▪ The integration of -omics and numerical modeling generates new understanding of how microbial metabolisms and community dynamics set nutrient fluxes in the ocean.
{"title":"Microbial Ecology to Ocean Carbon Cycling: From Genomes to Numerical Models","authors":"Naomi M. Levine, Harriet Alexander, Erin M. Bertrand, Victoria J. Coles, Stephanie Dutkiewicz, Suzana G. Leles, Emily J. Zakem","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-020630","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-020630","url":null,"abstract":"The oceans contain large reservoirs of inorganic and organic carbon and play a critical role in both global carbon cycling and climate. Most of the biogeochemical transformations in the oceans are driven by marine microbes. Thus, molecular processes occurring at the scale of single cells govern global geochemical dynamics, posing a challenge of scales. Understanding the processes controlling ocean carbon cycling from the cellular to the global scale requires the integration of multiple disciplines including microbiology, ecology, biogeochemistry, and computational fields such as numerical models and bioinformatics. A shared language and foundational knowledge will facilitate these interactions. This review provides the state of knowledge on the role marine microbes play in large-scale ocean carbon cycling through the lens of observational oceanography and biogeochemical models. We conclude by outlining ways in which the field can bridge the gap between -omics datasets and ocean models to understand ocean carbon cycling across scales. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> -Omic approaches are providing increasingly quantitative insight into the biogeochemical functions of marine microbial ecosystems. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Numerical models provide a tool for studying global carbon cycling by scaling from the microscale to the global scale. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The integration of -omics and numerical modeling generates new understanding of how microbial metabolisms and community dynamics set nutrient fluxes in the ocean. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"66 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143470584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-21DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-115520
Stuart Henrys, Dan Bassett, Susan Ellis, Laura Wallace, Philip M. Barnes, Donna Eberhart-Phillips, Demian Saffer, Carolyn Boulton
The Hikurangi margin has been an important global focus for subduction zone research for the last decade. International Ocean Discovery Program drilling and geophysical investigations have advanced our understanding of megathrust slip behavior. Along and across the margin, detailed imaging reveals that the megathrust structure varies spatially and evolves over time. Heterogeneous properties of the plate boundary zone and overriding plate are impacted by the evolving nature of regional tectonics and inherited overriding plate structure. Along-strike variability in thickness of subducting sediment and northward increasing influence of seamount subduction strongly influence megathrust lithologies, fluid pressure, and permeability structure. Together, these exert strong control on spatial variations in coupling, slow slip, and seismicity distribution. Thicker incoming sediment, combined with a compressional upper plate, influences deeper coupling at southern Hikurangi, where paleoseismic investigations reveal recurring great (Mw > 8.0) earthquakes. ▪ The Hikurangi Subduction Zone is marked by large-scale changes in the subducting Pacific Plate and the overlying plate, with varied tectonic stress, crustal thickness, and sediment cover. ▪ The roughness of the lower plate influences the variability in megathrust slip behavior, particularly where seamounts enhance subduction of fluid-rich sediments. ▪ Variations in sediment composition impact the strength of the subduction interface, with the southern Hikurangi Subduction Zone exhibiting a more uniform megathrust fault. ▪ Properties of the upper plate influence fluid pressures and contribute to the observed along-strike variations in Hikurangi plate coupling and slip behavior.
过去十年来，希古朗伊边缘一直是全球俯冲带研究的一个重要焦点。国际大洋发现计划的钻探和地球物理调查加深了我们对巨岩滑动行为的了解。沿边缘和横跨边缘的详细成像显示，巨推结构在空间上各不相同，并随着时间的推移而演变。板块边界区和凌空板块的异质特性受到区域构造和继承的凌空板块结构不断演变的影响。俯冲沉积厚度的沿走向变化和海山俯冲向北的影响，对巨岩岩性、流体压力和渗透结构产生了强烈影响。这些因素共同对耦合、缓慢滑移和地震分布的空间变化产生了强有力的控制。较厚的入海沉积物，加上上层板块的压缩性，影响了希库兰芝南部更深的耦合，在那里进行的古地震调查揭示了反复发生的大（M w > 8.0）地震。 彦库朗伊俯冲带的特点是俯冲太平洋板块和上覆板块发生大规模变化，构造应力、地壳厚度和沉积物覆盖率各不相同。 下层板块的粗糙度影响着巨岩滑动行为的变化，特别是在海山加强富含流体沉积物的俯冲的地方。 沉积物成分的变化影响着俯冲界面的强度，南部的希库兰芝俯冲带表现出更均匀的大推力断层。 上层板块的特性影响流体压力，并导致所观测到的彦兰芝板块耦合和滑动行为的沿走向变化。
{"title":"How Subduction Margin Processes and Properties Influence the Hikurangi Subduction Zone","authors":"Stuart Henrys, Dan Bassett, Susan Ellis, Laura Wallace, Philip M. Barnes, Donna Eberhart-Phillips, Demian Saffer, Carolyn Boulton","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-115520","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-115520","url":null,"abstract":"The Hikurangi margin has been an important global focus for subduction zone research for the last decade. International Ocean Discovery Program drilling and geophysical investigations have advanced our understanding of megathrust slip behavior. Along and across the margin, detailed imaging reveals that the megathrust structure varies spatially and evolves over time. Heterogeneous properties of the plate boundary zone and overriding plate are impacted by the evolving nature of regional tectonics and inherited overriding plate structure. Along-strike variability in thickness of subducting sediment and northward increasing influence of seamount subduction strongly influence megathrust lithologies, fluid pressure, and permeability structure. Together, these exert strong control on spatial variations in coupling, slow slip, and seismicity distribution. Thicker incoming sediment, combined with a compressional upper plate, influences deeper coupling at southern Hikurangi, where paleoseismic investigations reveal recurring great (<jats:italic>M</jats:italic> <jats:sub>w</jats:sub> > 8.0) earthquakes. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The Hikurangi Subduction Zone is marked by large-scale changes in the subducting Pacific Plate and the overlying plate, with varied tectonic stress, crustal thickness, and sediment cover. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The roughness of the lower plate influences the variability in megathrust slip behavior, particularly where seamounts enhance subduction of fluid-rich sediments. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Variations in sediment composition impact the strength of the subduction interface, with the southern Hikurangi Subduction Zone exhibiting a more uniform megathrust fault. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Properties of the upper plate influence fluid pressures and contribute to the observed along-strike variations in Hikurangi plate coupling and slip behavior. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143470585","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-20DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-014302
Nadir Jeevanjee, David J. Paynter, John P. Dunne, Lori T. Sentman, John P. Krasting
The notion of climate sensitivity has become synonymous with equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), or the equilibrium response of the Earth system to a doubling of CO2. But there is a hierarchy of measures of climate sensitivity, which can be arranged in order of increasing complexity and societal relevance and which mirror the historical development of climate modeling. Elements of this hierarchy include the well-known ECS and transient climate response and the lesser-known transient climate response to cumulative emissions and zero emissions commitment. This article describes this hierarchy of climate sensitivities and associated modeling approaches. Key concepts reviewed along the way include climate forcing and feedback, ocean heat uptake, and the airborne fraction of cumulative emissions. We employ simplified theoretical models throughout to encapsulate well-understood aspects of these quantities and to highlight gaps in our understanding and areas for future progress. ▪ There is a hierarchy of measures of climate sensitivity, which exhibit a range of complexity and societal relevance. ▪ Equilibrium climate sensitivity is only one these measures, and our understanding of it may have reached a plateau. ▪ The more complex measures introduce new quantities, such as ocean heat uptake efficiency and airborne fraction, which deserve increased attention.
{"title":"A Holistic View of Climate Sensitivity","authors":"Nadir Jeevanjee, David J. Paynter, John P. Dunne, Lori T. Sentman, John P. Krasting","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-014302","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040523-014302","url":null,"abstract":"The notion of climate sensitivity has become synonymous with equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), or the equilibrium response of the Earth system to a doubling of CO<jats:sub>2</jats:sub>. But there is a hierarchy of measures of climate sensitivity, which can be arranged in order of increasing complexity and societal relevance and which mirror the historical development of climate modeling. Elements of this hierarchy include the well-known ECS and transient climate response and the lesser-known transient climate response to cumulative emissions and zero emissions commitment. This article describes this hierarchy of climate sensitivities and associated modeling approaches. Key concepts reviewed along the way include climate forcing and feedback, ocean heat uptake, and the airborne fraction of cumulative emissions. We employ simplified theoretical models throughout to encapsulate well-understood aspects of these quantities and to highlight gaps in our understanding and areas for future progress. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> There is a hierarchy of measures of climate sensitivity, which exhibit a range of complexity and societal relevance. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Equilibrium climate sensitivity is only one these measures, and our understanding of it may have reached a plateau. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> The more complex measures introduce new quantities, such as ocean heat uptake efficiency and airborne fraction, which deserve increased attention. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"22 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143451517","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-02-20DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-093345
Priyadarshi Chowdhury, Peter A. Cawood, Jacob A. Mulder
The emergence of continental crust above sea level influences Earth's surface environments and climate patterns, and it creates diverse habitats that promote biodiversity. Earth exhibits bimodal hypsometry with elevated continents and a submerged seafloor. However, it remains elusive when and how this unique feature was first established. The geological record suggests the presence of subaerial landmasses between ca. 3.8 and 2.4 billion years ago (Ga), but their spatial extent and longevity remain unclear. Further, the tectonic processes governing the proportion of continental land to ocean basins and topography during this period are poorly understood. Here, we synthesize a variety of geological and geochemical proxies to suggest that crustal emergence did occur in the early-to-mid Archean, primarily exposing precratonized volcanic crust for brief time periods. Stable continental crust on a regional scale (as cratons) began emerging around ca. 3.2–3.0 Ga, facilitated by the development of thick, stable cratonic lithospheres. Over hundreds of millions of years, voluminous magmatism within a plateau-type setting led to the formation of thick, felsic crust and depleted mantle keels, allowing cratons to rise above sea level via isostatic adjustment. The areal extent of emergent land increased from ca. 3.0 to 2.5 Ga owing to the formation of more cratons, likely coinciding with the onset of plate tectonics, and culminated around ca. 2.5–2.2 Ga when land surface area and freeboard conditions resembled those observed today. These newly emerged landmasses possibly played a critical role in oxygenating the atmosphere and oceans, cooling the climate, and promoting biodiversity during the late Archean to early Paleoproterozoic. ▪ Continental emergence marks a pivotal moment in Earth's history, impacting the planet's atmosphere, oceans, climate, and life evolution. ▪ We review the rock record to infer the timing, nature, and tectonic drivers of continental emergence on early Earth. ▪ Emergence on early Archean Earth was mostly transient, exposing primarily volcanic crust. ▪ First stable continental land formed at ca. 3.2–3.0 Ga due to the development of thick cratons and their isostatic adjustment. ▪ Emergent land area increased from ca. 3.0 to 2.5 Ga as more cratons formed and plate tectonics began.
{"title":"Subaerial Emergence of Continents on Archean Earth","authors":"Priyadarshi Chowdhury, Peter A. Cawood, Jacob A. Mulder","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-093345","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040722-093345","url":null,"abstract":"The emergence of continental crust above sea level influences Earth's surface environments and climate patterns, and it creates diverse habitats that promote biodiversity. Earth exhibits bimodal hypsometry with elevated continents and a submerged seafloor. However, it remains elusive when and how this unique feature was first established. The geological record suggests the presence of subaerial landmasses between ca. 3.8 and 2.4 billion years ago (Ga), but their spatial extent and longevity remain unclear. Further, the tectonic processes governing the proportion of continental land to ocean basins and topography during this period are poorly understood. Here, we synthesize a variety of geological and geochemical proxies to suggest that crustal emergence did occur in the early-to-mid Archean, primarily exposing precratonized volcanic crust for brief time periods. Stable continental crust on a regional scale (as cratons) began emerging around ca. 3.2–3.0 Ga, facilitated by the development of thick, stable cratonic lithospheres. Over hundreds of millions of years, voluminous magmatism within a plateau-type setting led to the formation of thick, felsic crust and depleted mantle keels, allowing cratons to rise above sea level via isostatic adjustment. The areal extent of emergent land increased from ca. 3.0 to 2.5 Ga owing to the formation of more cratons, likely coinciding with the onset of plate tectonics, and culminated around ca. 2.5–2.2 Ga when land surface area and freeboard conditions resembled those observed today. These newly emerged landmasses possibly played a critical role in oxygenating the atmosphere and oceans, cooling the climate, and promoting biodiversity during the late Archean to early Paleoproterozoic. <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\"> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Continental emergence marks a pivotal moment in Earth's history, impacting the planet's atmosphere, oceans, climate, and life evolution. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> We review the rock record to infer the timing, nature, and tectonic drivers of continental emergence on early Earth. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Emergence on early Archean Earth was mostly transient, exposing primarily volcanic crust. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> First stable continental land formed at ca. 3.2–3.0 Ga due to the development of thick cratons and their isostatic adjustment. </jats:list-item> <jats:list-item> <jats:label>▪</jats:label> Emergent land area increased from ca. 3.0 to 2.5 Ga as more cratons formed and plate tectonics began. </jats:list-item> </jats:list>","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"81 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2025-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143451516","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：