The WEIZAC was built for the Applied Mathematics Department at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel during 1954-1955. It is an early example of successful technology transfer, with the design of the von Neumann machine moving from the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey to the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. WEIZAC's existence, its intense application to physical problems and the cadres trained in digital hardware, software and computational methods opened a market of concepts and practices outside of the United States and Europe. The author, who worked on and directed the WEIZAC project, discusses its history, results, and impact.
{"title":"The WEIZAC Years (1954-1963)","authors":"G. Estrin","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10037","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10037","url":null,"abstract":"The WEIZAC was built for the Applied Mathematics Department at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel during 1954-1955. It is an early example of successful technology transfer, with the design of the von Neumann machine moving from the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey to the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. WEIZAC's existence, its intense application to physical problems and the cadres trained in digital hardware, software and computational methods opened a market of concepts and practices outside of the United States and Europe. The author, who worked on and directed the WEIZAC project, discusses its history, results, and impact.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"317-339"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10037","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442264","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Punched-card machines were in a number of ways predecessors to computers. The punched-card technique was invented in the United States in the 1880s by Herman Hollerith, who continued development for another two decades. His firm later became the main component of IBM. Only two main competitors to Hollerith emerged, Powers in the United States and Bull first in Norway and later in France. This article covers the development of the Bull machines in the Norwegian period, 1918- 1930.
{"title":"From Invention to Production: The Development of Punched-card Machines by F. R. Bull and K. A. Knutsen 1918-1930","authors":"L. Heide","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10024","url":null,"abstract":"Punched-card machines were in a number of ways predecessors to computers. The punched-card technique was invented in the United States in the 1880s by Herman Hollerith, who continued development for another two decades. His firm later became the main component of IBM. Only two main competitors to Hollerith emerged, Powers in the United States and Bull first in Norway and later in France. This article covers the development of the Bull machines in the Norwegian period, 1918- 1930.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"261-272"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10024","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442193","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A memorandum dated April 27, 1942, from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, is reproduced. The memorandum describes a computing facility at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, in which a team of humans equipped with mechanical calculators was organized to assist in aeronautics research. The memorandum reveals much about the state of computing as it existed just before the invention of automatic digital computers, whose introduction would bring this era to a close.
1942年4月27日，国家航空咨询委员会的一份备忘录被转载。备忘录描述了兰利纪念航空实验室(Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory)的一个计算设施，在那里组织了一个配备机械计算器的团队来协助航空研究。这份备忘录揭示了自动数字计算机发明之前的计算状态，自动数字计算机的发明终结了这个时代。
{"title":"When Computers Were Human","authors":"P. Ceruzzi","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10025","url":null,"abstract":"A memorandum dated April 27, 1942, from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, is reproduced. The memorandum describes a computing facility at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, in which a team of humans equipped with mechanical calculators was organized to assist in aeronautics research. The memorandum reveals much about the state of computing as it existed just before the invention of automatic digital computers, whose introduction would bring this era to a close.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"237-244"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10025","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442206","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A detailed and exemplified account is given on the invention and development of the Hollerith Punched Card from the beginning in 1886 until 1928. The change of use from counting to value statistics is shown. The size of the Hollerith Punched Card was standardized very early. The cards were soon used both for data capture and data punching - the dual purpose punched card. The first Hollerith cards were punched with a conductor's punch, soon be replaced by the Pantograph Punch, and, after the decimal columns have appeared, a Mechanical Key Punch, the Type 001, later replaced by the Electrical Key Punch Type 011, was used.
{"title":"The Invention and Development of the Hollerith Punched Card: In Commemoration of the 130th Anniversary of the Birth of Herman Hollerith and for the 100th Anniversary of Large Scale Data Processing","authors":"F. Kistermann","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10023","url":null,"abstract":"A detailed and exemplified account is given on the invention and development of the Hollerith Punched Card from the beginning in 1886 until 1928. The change of use from counting to value statistics is shown. The size of the Hollerith Punched Card was standardized very early. The cards were soon used both for data capture and data punching - the dual purpose punched card. The first Hollerith cards were punched with a conductor's punch, soon be replaced by the Pantograph Punch, and, after the decimal columns have appeared, a Mechanical Key Punch, the Type 001, later replaced by the Electrical Key Punch Type 011, was used.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"245-259"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10023","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442146","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
During the years between the World Wars aviation became established as a credible form of transport. Airmail delivery and passenger service gained acceptance with the civilian population, while aircraft for observation, transport, and combat roles were adopted by military and naval forces. A pre-requisite to routine air travel was the development of reliable methods of aerial navigation. In addition to new navigational techniques and instruments, numerous computational aids were developed to simplify the aerial navigator's work. Highly specialized computational aids were also developed to assist military aviators in performing aerial gunnery and bombardment. The following article describes a few of these devices, with special attention given to the mechanical analog computers used in military aircraft during World War II.
{"title":"Some Early Computers for Aviators","authors":"P. McConnell","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10013","url":null,"abstract":"During the years between the World Wars aviation became established as a credible form of transport. Airmail delivery and passenger service gained acceptance with the civilian population, while aircraft for observation, transport, and combat roles were adopted by military and naval forces. A pre-requisite to routine air travel was the development of reliable methods of aerial navigation. In addition to new navigational techniques and instruments, numerous computational aids were developed to simplify the aerial navigator's work. Highly specialized computational aids were also developed to assist military aviators in performing aerial gunnery and bombardment. The following article describes a few of these devices, with special attention given to the mechanical analog computers used in military aircraft during World War II.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"155-177"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10013","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442072","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Babbage's expectations for his Difference Engine were those of a young enthusiast. Although he failed to complete his version of the engine, an independent implementation of his ideas was carried through by Georg and Edvard Scheutz. Two Scheutz engines were built and put to work, one at the Registrar-General's Office in London and one at the Dudley Observatory in Albany, N. Y. They performed as intended, but failed to revolutionize the making of mathematical tables as Babbage had hoped they would. When Babbage was 45years old. he wrote, but did not publish, a description of the Analytical Engine. Here he showed vision verging on genius. His judgment on the design and utility of the Analytical Engine was as sound as his judgment on matters concerned with the Difference Engine was weak. Studies by A. G. Bromley, based on an examination of his notebooks, have brought out his remarkable achievements at what we would now call the microprogram level and also the insights that eluded him at the user level. His failure to publish may have been because he never arrived at what he regarded as a satisfactory system for programming at the user level.
巴贝奇对他的差分机的期望是一个年轻的狂热者的期望。虽然他没能完成他的引擎版本，但他的想法被乔治和爱德华·施瓦茨独立实现了。两台Scheutz引擎被制造出来并投入使用，一台在伦敦的注册总办公室，另一台在纽约州奥尔巴尼的达德利天文台。它们按预期运行，但未能像巴贝奇所希望的那样彻底改变数学表格的制作。巴贝奇45岁的时候。他写了一篇关于分析机的描述，但没有发表。在这里，他展现了近乎天才的远见。他对分析机的设计和用途的判断是正确的，而他对差分机的判断却很薄弱。a·g·布罗姆利(A. G. Bromley)的研究基于对他的笔记本的考察，揭示了他在我们现在称之为微程序层面上的卓越成就，以及他在用户层面上未能获得的见解。他未能发表可能是因为他从来没有达到他认为的令人满意的用户级编程系统。
{"title":"Babbage's Expectations for his Engines","authors":"M. Wilkes","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10011","url":null,"abstract":"Babbage's expectations for his Difference Engine were those of a young enthusiast. Although he failed to complete his version of the engine, an independent implementation of his ideas was carried through by Georg and Edvard Scheutz. Two Scheutz engines were built and put to work, one at the Registrar-General's Office in London and one at the Dudley Observatory in Albany, N. Y. They performed as intended, but failed to revolutionize the making of mathematical tables as Babbage had hoped they would. When Babbage was 45years old. he wrote, but did not publish, a description of the Analytical Engine. Here he showed vision verging on genius. His judgment on the design and utility of the Analytical Engine was as sound as his judgment on matters concerned with the Difference Engine was weak. Studies by A. G. Bromley, based on an examination of his notebooks, have brought out his remarkable achievements at what we would now call the microprogram level and also the insights that eluded him at the user level. His failure to publish may have been because he never arrived at what he regarded as a satisfactory system for programming at the user level.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"141-145"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10011","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62441713","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories have been important sponsors of, and customers for, supercomputers-high-performance scientific computers. The laboratories played an important part in establishing speed of floating-point arithmetic (rather than, say, at logical operations) as the performance criterion defining supercomputing. But their more specific influence on the evolution of computer architecture has been limited by the diversity and classified nature of their central computational tasks, together with the expansion of supercomputer use elsewhere.
{"title":"The Influence of the Los Alamos and Livermore National Laboratories on the Development of Supercomputing","authors":"D. MacKenzie","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10014","url":null,"abstract":"The Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories have been important sponsors of, and customers for, supercomputers-high-performance scientific computers. The laboratories played an important part in establishing speed of floating-point arithmetic (rather than, say, at logical operations) as the performance criterion defining supercomputing. But their more specific influence on the evolution of computer architecture has been limited by the diversity and classified nature of their central computational tasks, together with the expansion of supercomputer use elsewhere.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"179-201"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10014","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442083","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Babbage is noted for his technical, belatedly recognized, triumphs of computational technology; his personality has been the subject of scrutiny by several authors. Towards his end of life he is said to have wished that he could exchange the remainder of his life for three days in the future. This play provides us with the opportunity to step back to his day and to see the man separate (as far as he would allow) from his machines. That we could grant his wish...
{"title":"Pray Mr. Babbage-A character study in dramatic form","authors":"M. Wilkes","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10021","url":null,"abstract":"Babbage is noted for his technical, belatedly recognized, triumphs of computational technology; his personality has been the subject of scrutiny by several authors. Towards his end of life he is said to have wished that he could exchange the remainder of his life for three days in the future. This play provides us with the opportunity to step back to his day and to see the man separate (as far as he would allow) from his machines. That we could grant his wish...","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"147-154"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10021","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62442134","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper describes some factors in, approaches to, and specific elements of, programming language history. It first lists a number of general factors and approaches which can be used to discuss the history of programming languages. After presenting a life cycle for programming language development, it provides numerous illustrations of programming language history and chronology from many of the viewpoints indicated earlier. There is a brief discussion of relevant literature and a section indicating some of the reasons for the vast proliferation of programming languages. Various charts and lists are included. This paper should be viewed as one approach to considering the history of programming languages, rather than as a history of programming languages per se.
{"title":"Some Approaches to, and Illustrations of, Programming Language History","authors":"J. Sammet","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10001","url":null,"abstract":"This paper describes some factors in, approaches to, and specific elements of, programming language history. It first lists a number of general factors and approaches which can be used to discuss the history of programming languages. After presenting a life cycle for programming language development, it provides numerous illustrations of programming language history and chronology from many of the viewpoints indicated earlier. There is a brief discussion of relevant literature and a section indicating some of the reasons for the vast proliferation of programming languages. Various charts and lists are included. This paper should be viewed as one approach to considering the history of programming languages, rather than as a history of programming languages per se.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"33-50"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62441547","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The evolution and history of computer printing technology in the United States is covered from the end of World War II to recent times (1946-1987). The wide variety of printer products introduced over the forty-year period is surveyed and their differentiating characteristics described. The relationship of computer technology to printer technology is discussed as is the relationship of the computer industry to the printer industry.
{"title":"Marks on Paper: Part 1. A Historical Survey of Computer Output Printing","authors":"Irving L. Wieselman, Erwin Tomash","doi":"10.1109/MAHC.1991.10006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10006","url":null,"abstract":"The evolution and history of computer printing technology in the United States is covered from the end of World War II to recent times (1946-1987). The wide variety of printer products introduced over the forty-year period is surveyed and their differentiating characteristics described. The relationship of computer technology to printer technology is discussed as is the relationship of the computer industry to the printer industry.","PeriodicalId":80486,"journal":{"name":"Annals of the history of computing","volume":"13 1","pages":"63-79"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1991-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1109/MAHC.1991.10006","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"62441607","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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