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Sándor Cseresnyés born on 15th September 1786 was one of the physicians of the first half of 19th century who efficiently practised in several scopes of activity. Having finished his studies at the college of Sárospatak he undertook family tutorship. In the autumn of 1814 he enrolled in the Medical Faculty for University of Pest together with his friend László Ungvárnémeti-Tóth, a poet writing his poems in Hungarian and Greek. Besides being engaged in his studies he worked as a principal assistant at the eye-hospital of Ladies' Charity Association of Pest. In the autumn of 1818 he went to Vienna in order to obtain the medical certificate, however, in 1819 he was invited to go to county Somogy where he followed dominial doctor's activity until 1827. Meanwhile he finished his studies at Pest University in 1826. Utilizing his therapeutic experiences he wrote his medical dissertation on arthritis. He was appointed to chief medical officer of town Makó in 1827. The most part of the book which was the first comprehensive work of the Hungarian otological literature was written by him there. In 1831 at time of cholera-epidemic he practised so successfully in Horgos that not one single patient of his was lost. In 1832 he was appointed to a deputy chief physician of county Veszprém with a seat in Pápa. He established there a hospital for nursing of psychotic patients and people with suspected rabies. He was among the first physicians who performed surgical interventions under unaesthesia using ether. His written communications were published in the local professional journals, some of his less extensive books on 'healing of rabies and snake-bite' and on 'the bath of Ugod' were also published. Moreover, he compiled a book comprising historical, geographical and literary selections on 'Somló hill' being famous for its wine. He died in 1854. The Hungarian Society for Oto-Rhino-Laringology treasures his memory also by giving Cseresnyés-commemorative medal to its praiseworthy members.

Tibor Péterfi (1883-1953) was an eminent and internationally renowned biologist. He made great advances in the field of experimental physiology focusing his cytological research on microscopic examination of living cells. For this task, he created a tool named micromanipulator basing the development of microsurgery and that of cell surgery as well. His histological and cytological researches took their beginning first in Kolozsvár/Cluj (then Hungary, now Romania), where he worked as an assistant of professor István Apáthy then in Budapest where he spent fruitful years under the tutorship of professor Mihály Lenhossék. His scientific career however was broken by the political persecution which followed the fall of the communist revolution in 1919. He emigrated and spent the following decades in Prague, in Jena, in Berlin and in Cambridge. The apogee however of his scientific career proved to be the period he spent in Istanbul as a guest professor of the local university. He returned home only after the war already mortally ill. His illness did not allow him to continue his activity any more. Present article evaluates Tibor Péterfi's scientific achievements based mostly on recent archival researches.

András Jósa was the most important and renowned physician in county Szabolcs (Hungary) in the 19th-20th centuries. Author outlines his biography and analyses his medical activity. Present article is based on a memorial lecture given at the meeting of the Hungarian Society for the History of Medicine in Budapest 24th September 2009.

Author gave an overview of the main types of the fed and formated medicines used in times before invention of lozenges. Six main types of these pharmaceutical products are to be defined here: 1. conserva 2. electuaria or confectiones 3. morsuli 4. rotulae or tabulae made with sugar 5. trochsci or pastillae and 6. terrae sigillatae. Author defines the single forms, tells their short history and also presents the ways they were produced and the tools and machines needed for their fabrication.

Gymnastics as a way of healing and of preserving health spread in Hungary--almost exclusively among higher classes--only in the first half of the 19th century. The movement was inspired by naturopathic theories of the time, first of all by Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland's macrobiotics, by Vinzenz Priessnitz's hydrotherapy and by his healing gymnastics. Gymnastics has been utilized from the 30ies by a new bough of medicine, orthopaedy. The so called Swedish Gymnastics invented by Per Henrik Ling and by his son Hjalmar Ling or the method of the German gymnast Adolf Spiess were well known in Hungary as well. The pediatrist Agost Schöp-Merei founded the first Institute for Gymnastics in Pest in 1835. As orthopaedy developed, gymnastics was more and more utilized in curing locomotor disorders. Gymnastics however stood in close connection with hydropathy as well. Several institutes for hydropathy and gymnastics were founded in the 50ies and 60ies throughout the country. The most popular of them were those of Károly Siklósy and Sámuel Batizfalvy. Preventive gymnastics gained popularity only in the second half of the 19th century, as 1830 the French gymnast Ignatius Clair moved to Pest and founded the "Pester gymnastische Schule" (Gymnastics School of Pest). This private school flourished till 1863. The Gymnastic Federation of Pest (later National Gymnastics Federation), the first Hungarian sport club was founded in 1866. Tivadar Bakody played an important role in its creation. Gymnastics and sport at the beginning were closely connected with fire-service, so gymnastics clubs often functioned also as fire-guard-bodies. In the 70ies and 80ies the social basis of sport movement was slowly broadened out. The end of the century saw already 44 gymnastics-clubs in Hungary united in a single union, the National Federation of Gymnasts, which organized the education of the profession as well. The trend of development didn't cease up to the Great War. This time the movement was headed by Sándor Hegedus and by Albert Berzeviczy, latter being also the president of the Hungarian Olympic Committee.

Numerous written relicts, belletristic works (poems of Martial, Juvenal, Ovid etc.) indicate that oral hygiene and its tools (toothbrush, toothpick, use of tooth pastes and tooth-powder) were used long before our times. Already ancient people started to remove, file, dye and inlay teeth. The teeth were dyed red, green or black in Egypt, red or brown (with henna or betel) in India, white by Romans. The teeth decoration has a long but forgotten history. The most skillful and artistic work was done by the Maya's between 900 BC and 1500 AD. The modification of contours (more than fifty forms) of the incisors were practiced also in Mesoamerica. Dentistry was surely practiced in ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece and Rome, while odontology and especially suitable dental appliances arose only by Etruscan. Dental prosthesis, including bridges and simple retention bands were invented by the Etruscans 2500 years ago. These Etruscan bridges were worn mostly by females, suggesting that cosmetics was the principal dental concern. Some,--if not all--of the Roman and other prostheses have been purely ornamental. Orthodontic appliances are also Etruscan invention. The holes caused by caries were filled with garlic, incense, caraway seed in Egypt, with wood or lead in Rome, and with "silver-paste" (amalgam) in ancient China. The toothache was cured with poppy-tee, or hashish and nightshade plants (Solanaceae) in Egypt, Greece, Roman Empire while with coca (Erythroxylon coca) in South-America.

From the 1820's a great number of surgeons attended the Faculty of Medicine in Pest. The increasing number of the students was resulted by several circumstances. After the Napoleonic wars peregrination from Hapsburg lands was prohibited. The Faculty of Medicine in Pest however offerred a diploma for its students valid for the whole territory of the Hapsburg Empire. The lectures were held in Hungarian or German, in contrary to the exclusively Latin lectures for medical students. A shorter preliminary education was needed. After three years the student could get his degree Chirurgiae Magister or Chirurgus civilis--the length of studies depended on the pleriminary studies of the surgeon. The Faculty started only two courses, so the surgeons mostly repeated the second or both courses. Although these degrees proved to be inferior to the titles Doctor Medicinae or Doctor Chirurgiae, many students wanted to get it. In the beginning of this period, in 1825/1825 117 persons attended the first semesters of the German, and 59 of the Hungarian course. This growth reached its peak in the years of the cholera. In 1832/1833 255 person matriculated to the first class of the German and 148 to the Hungarian course. This new contagion damaged not only human lifes, but the popularity of the surgical education as well. The number of students began slowly decrease. Another reason for this decrease was the new possibility for peregrination from the 1830's. In 1846/1847 48 persons matriculated to the first German course, and 49 to the Hungarian, while in the second one their number was only 10 and 20. As we can see, the German course was more popular, here came students from the other parts of the Hapsburg Empire, especially Jews: from Moravia (160; 110 of them was Jew), Bohemia (134) or Galicia (178; 124 of them was Jew). Between 1825 and 1846 2618 surgeons matriculated to the Faculty of Pest, many of them however left it with or without doing their exams. 1854 students took every exam, but only 259 got his degree as Chirurgiae Magister in Pest, and 1049 as Chirurgiae Civilis. Presumably many students carried on their studies in Vienna. Although the Faculty of Medicine in Pest was less renowned, than the medical faculty of Vienna or Prague, it definitely played a remarkable role in the contemporary medical and surgical education of the Hapsburg Empire.

Author attempted to collect all available medical data of the period of the reign of Mathias Corvinus (1443-1490) who ruled Hungary for 32 years. First part of this article outlines the general medical history of this era. In the 15th century the flourishing Kingdom of Hungary was inhabited by 3-3.2 million people. Under the rule of King Matthias epidemies were frequent visitors, plague e.g. was registered 11 times, while sudor anglicus once (in 1485). The ca. 120 hospitals of the era were founded mostly in towns and market-towns. At the same time 12 leprosories worked throughout the country. Strikingly many dates and details could be collected concerning medical doctors and surgeons working in Hungary. A list of 69 medical doctors and surgeons (60 physicians and 9 surgeons) of this era known by their names is attached to the article. The second and third part of the treatise is a medical history of King Matthias of his relatives and of his court. We can read here a report on the illnesses and death of Janus Pannonius and of Joannes Vitéz who both played an important role in Hungarian culture. Author's further inquiry is focused on diseases and death of the king. Cause of his death was--according to contemporary sources and our present-day knowledge--a cerebral apoplexy. On 6th April 1490 Matthias died suddenly but not unexpected, since his health had already been deteriorated critically during the previous two years, and he had long been crippled by gout. The king's condition had been worsened probably as an effect of factors caused by visceral form of gout. These factors were cardiovascular and renal damages and hypertension, which resulted the fatal cerebral apoplexy causing the king's sudden death.