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1. Introduction 1. 介绍

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru_ndw034

L. Maurice, T. Atkinson, A. Williams, J. Barker, A. Farrant

Tracer testing was undertaken from sinking streams feeding the Chalk, a porous limestone aquifer characterised by frequent small-scale surface karst features. The objective was to investigate the nature and extent of sub-surface karstic development in the aquifer. Previous tracer testing has demonstrated rapid flow combined with low attenuation of tracer. In this study, at two sites rapid groundwater flow was combined with very high attenuation and at two other sites no tracer was detected at springs within the likely catchment area of the stream sinks tested, suggesting that tracer was totally attenuated along the flowpath. It is proposed that the networks beneath stream sinks in the Chalk and other mildly karstic aquifers distribute recharge into multiple enlarged fractures that divide and become smaller at each division whereas the networks around springs have a predominantly tributary topology that concentrates flow into a few relatively large cavities, a morphology with similarities to that of the early stages of karstification. Tracer attenuation is controlled by the degree to which the two networks are directly connected. In the first state, there is no direct linkage and flow between the two networks is via primary fractures in which tracer attenuation is extreme. The second state is at a percolation threshold in which a single direct link joins the two networks. A very small proportion of tracer reaches the spring rapidly but overall attenuation is very high. In the third state, the recharge and discharge networks are integrated therefore a large fraction of tracer reaches the spring and peak concentrations are relatively high. Despite the large number of stream sinks that recharge the Chalk aquifer, these results suggest that sub-surface conduit development may not always be continuous, with flow down smaller fissures and fractures causing high attenuation of solutes and particulates providing a degree of protection to groundwater outlets that is not seen in more highly karstic aquifers. Bacteriophage tracers that can be detected at very large dilutions (10) are recommended for investigating groundwater pathways where attenuation may be high.

对注入白垩层的下沉溪流进行了示踪测试，白垩层是一种多孔石灰岩含水层，其特征是频繁出现小规模的地表岩溶特征。目的是调查含水层地下岩溶发育的性质和程度。之前的示踪剂测试表明，示踪剂流动迅速，衰减低。在本研究中，在两个地点，快速的地下水流动与非常高的衰减相结合，在另外两个地点，在测试的溪流水槽可能集水区的泉水中没有检测到示踪剂，这表明示踪剂沿流道完全衰减。我们认为，白垩系和其他轻度岩溶含水层的河流下沉下的网络将补给分布到多个扩大的裂缝中，这些裂缝在每个裂缝中分裂并变小，而泉水周围的网络具有主要的支流拓扑结构，将水流集中到几个相对较大的空腔中，这种形态与岩溶作用早期阶段相似。示踪剂衰减由两个网络直接连接的程度来控制。在第一种状态下，两个网络之间没有直接联系，流体通过主裂缝流动，示踪剂衰减非常大。第二种状态是在一个渗透阈值处，在这个阈值处，一个直接连接连接了两个网络。一小部分示踪剂迅速到达弹簧，但总体衰减非常高。在第三种状态下，充放电网络一体化，大量示踪剂到达春季，峰值浓度较高。尽管有大量的溪流汇补给白垩含水层，但这些结果表明，地下管道的发育可能并不总是连续的，沿着较小的裂缝和裂缝流下的水流会导致溶质和颗粒的高度衰减，为地下水出口提供一定程度的保护，这在高岩溶含水层中是没有的。可以在非常大的稀释下检测到的噬菌体示踪剂(10)被推荐用于调查衰减可能很高的地下水通道。

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引用次数: 0

Appendix. Stopping Power and Range Tables for Charged Particles 附录带电粒子的停止功率和范围表

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndw030

引用次数: 4

6. Photon Interaction Coefficients 6. 光子相互作用系数

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru_ndw035

As indicated in Section 2.2, the mass attenuation coefficient is given in terms of the sum of cross sections for photon interactions in the material, i.e., ðm=rÞ 1⁄4 ðNA=MAÞ P J sJ. However, for this report, the quantity of key importance for the dosimetry of ionizing radiation, particularly for primary standards, is the mass energy-transfer coefficient, ðmtr=rÞ 1⁄4 ðNA=MAÞ P J fJsJ, where fJ is the fraction of energy transferred to charged particles in the interaction of type J, and the closely related mass energy-absorption coefficient, ðmen=rÞ 1⁄4 ðmtr=rÞð1 gÞ, where g is the fraction of energy transferred to charged particles that is subsequently lost on average in radiative processes. Traditionally, the component cross sections, sJ, considered have been those for the interaction of the photon with atomic electrons and the Coulomb fields of the nucleus and atomic electrons, namely photoelectric absorption, coherent (Rayleigh) scattering, incoherent (mostly Compton) scattering, and pair production in the fields of the screened nucleus (pair) and atomic electrons (triplet). Interactions with nucleons (photonuclear cross sections) are usually not included in critically evaluated compilations. It should be noted that fJ is considered to be zero for coherent scattering, which removes consideration of coherent scattering in the calculation of mtr and men. A recent review by Pratt (2014) highlights our understanding of atomic photoeffect, Comptonscattering, and Rayleigh-scattering cross sections. He points out that, although much progress has been made in the theory and measurement of these photon-interaction cross sections, both theory and measurement still lack the accuracy to resolve discrepancies at levels of from 1 % to about 10 %. Compilations of such cross-section data are now indispensable in applications of radiation science, and figure importantly in the realization of measurement standards for ionizing radiation (see Section 3). A useful review of the history of the information used in such compilations can be found in the work of Hubbell (1969; 1999; 2006). Over more than six decades of such development, the results of theory and numerical computation have shown reasonable agreement with measured data and have largely replaced reliance on measurement as the basis for the standard reference data on photon-interaction cross sections. The work of Hubbell et al. (1975; 1979), culminating in the online database XCOM (Berger and Hubbell, 1987; Berger et al., 2010), has become a standard source of atomic cross sections for photon interactions. This Report is concerned with photon energies above about 1 keV and only with air, graphite, and liquid water; however, virtually all materials are involved in application areas of photon transport and dosimetry. Because our knowledge of the cross sections is still not complete, it appears difficult to draw unambiguous conclusions on which data to recommend. Rather, some relevant comparisons are made, and

如2.2节所示，质量衰减系数用材料中光子相互作用的截面之和表示，即:ðm=rÞ 1⁄4 ðNA=MAÞ P J sJ。然而，在本报告中，对于电离辐射剂量学，特别是初级标准，至关重要的量是质量能量传递系数，即:ðmtr=rÞ 1⁄4 ðNA=MAÞ P J fJsJ，其中fJ是在J型相互作用中传递给带电粒子的能量的比例，以及与之密切相关的质量能量吸收系数，即:ðmen=rÞ 1⁄4 ðmtr=rÞð1 gÞ。其中g是传递给带电粒子的能量的分数，这些能量随后在辐射过程中平均损失。传统上，考虑的组分截面sJ是光子与原子电子以及原子核和原子电子的库仑场的相互作用，即光电吸收，相干(瑞利)散射，非相干(主要是康普顿)散射，以及在屏蔽的原子核(对)和原子电子(三重态)场中产生对。与核子的相互作用(光核截面)通常不包括在严格评估的汇编中。需要注意的是，对于相干散射，fJ被认为是零，这样在计算mtr和men时就不考虑相干散射了。普拉特(2014)最近的一篇综述强调了我们对原子光效应、康普顿散射和瑞利散射截面的理解。他指出，尽管在这些光子相互作用截面的理论和测量方面已经取得了很大的进展，但理论和测量仍然缺乏精度来解决1%到10%之间的差异。这种截面数据的汇编现在在辐射科学的应用中是必不可少的，并且在实现电离辐射的测量标准中具有重要意义(见第3节)。对这种汇编中使用的信息的历史的有益回顾可以在Hubbell (1969;1999;2006)。经过六十多年的发展，理论和数值计算的结果与实测数据基本一致，并在很大程度上取代了对测量数据的依赖，成为光子相互作用截面标准参考数据的基础。Hubbell等人的工作(1975;1979)，最终形成了在线数据库XCOM (Berger and Hubbell, 1987;Berger et al.， 2010)，已经成为光子相互作用原子截面的标准来源。本报告涉及的光子能量超过1千电子伏特，只与空气，石墨和液态水;然而，几乎所有材料都涉及到光子输运和剂量学的应用领域。由于我们对横截面的了解仍然不完整，因此很难得出明确的结论来推荐哪些数据。而是作了一些有关的比较，重点将放在与本报告有关的数量的不确定性上。

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Front matter 前页

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01

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7. Impact of Recommendations 7.建议的影响

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndw033

引用次数: 0

6. Photon Interaction Coefficients 6.光子相互作用系数

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndw035

引用次数: 0

7. Impact of Recommendations 7. 建议的影响

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru_ndw033

This Report has reviewed relevant data and has recommended values of quantities that play an important role in radiation dosimetry, especially those needed in measurement standards. This Section considers some of the implications of the recommended changes for dosimetric measurements and on calculations made in the fields of radiation medicine, industry, and other applications, including radiation research. Recommended values and uncertainties are given for Wair, the average energy required to produce an ion pair, the heat defect of liquid water, hW, and the radiation chemical yield for the Fricke dosimeter, G(Fe3þ). A new value is also recommended for the product, Wair sg,air, for Co g rays. The humidity correction, kh, for air-filled ionization chambers is reviewed, but no changes are recommended. However, it is noted that, for high precision, the variation of kh with relative humidity or, more properly, with the partial pressure of water vapor, should be considered. Data for the heat defect of graphite are reviewed, but no definitive conclusions could be reached and more study is recommended. The value of Wair for electrons is left unchanged at 33.97 eV, but its standard uncertainty has been increased from 0.05 eV (0.15 %) to 0.12 eV (0.35 %). This will have an impact on the uncertainty of airkerma standards based on free-air chambers and will for many standards become the dominant component. The available data for Wair indicate that it can be considered constant at high energies. However, for electron energies below about 10 keV, Wair cannot be considered constant. Furthermore, as was pointed out in Section 5.5, when the air kerma is obtained from a charge measurement, a correction should be applied for the charge of the initial electrons set in motion by the photons. The combined correction for these last two effects (see Table 5.7) can be significant for low-energy photons (up to 0.7 %) and could give rise to changes in primary standards. Recommendations have been made for the mean excitation energies for air, graphite, and liquid water as well as for the graphite density to use when evaluating the density effect (2.265 g cm). From these recommendations, tables of the stopping powers for electrons, protons, alpha particles, and carbon ions have been generated (see the Appendix). For air, no change in the value of the mean excitation energy is recommended, i.e., Iair 1⁄4 85.7 eV but now with an uncertainty of 1.2 eV (1.4 %); stopping power values for all particles thus remain unaltered, except for carbon ions, for which an Iair value of 82.8 eV was implicitly used in ICRU Report 73 (2005). For electrons in graphite, the change in the electronic stopping powers relative to those given in ICRU Report 37 (1987a) is shown in Fig. 7.1. The value of Ig has increased from 78 eV to 81 eV, and the standard uncertainty has decreased from 4 eV to 1.8 eV. The increase in the mean excitation energy and the change in the density used to evaluate the densi

本报告审查了有关数据，并建议了在辐射剂量学中发挥重要作用的量的值，特别是在测量标准中需要的量的值。本节考虑了剂量学测量和辐射医学、工业和其他应用领域(包括辐射研究)中计算的建议变化的一些影响。给出了Wair、产生离子对所需的平均能量、液态水的热缺陷hW和Fricke剂量计的辐射化学产率G(Fe3þ)的推荐值和不确定度。还建议为产品Wair sg,air，用于Co g射线设置一个新值。对充气电离室的湿度校正kh进行了审查，但不建议进行更改。但是，需要注意的是，为了获得高精度，应考虑kh随相对湿度的变化，或者更确切地说，随水蒸气分压的变化。对石墨热缺陷的数据进行了回顾，但没有得出明确的结论，建议进行更多的研究。电子的Wair值保持在33.97 eV不变，但其标准不确定度由0.05 eV(0.15%)提高到0.12 eV(0.35%)。这将对基于自由空气室的airkerma标准的不确定性产生影响，并将成为许多标准的主要组成部分。现有的Wair数据表明，它在高能量时可以被认为是恒定的。然而，对于电子能量低于约10kev, Wair不能被认为是常数。此外，正如第5.5节所指出的，当从电荷测量中获得空气角时，应对光子运动的初始电子的电荷进行校正。最后两种效应的综合校正(见表5.7)对于低能量光子(高达0.7%)可能是显著的，并且可能导致初级标准的变化。对空气、石墨和液态水的平均激发能以及在评估密度效应(2.265 g cm)时使用的石墨密度提出了建议。根据这些建议，生成了电子、质子、α粒子和碳离子的停止力表(见附录)。对于空气，建议不改变平均激发能的值，即Iair 1 / 4 85.7 eV，但现在的不确定度为1.2 eV (1.4%);因此，除碳离子外，所有粒子的停止功率值保持不变，ICRU报告73(2005)中隐含地使用了82.8 eV的Iair值。对于石墨中的电子，相对于ICRU报告37 (1987a)给出的电子停止功率的变化如图7.1所示。Ig值从78 eV增加到81 eV，标准不确定度从4 eV降低到1.8 eV。平均激发能的增加和用于评估密度效应校正的密度的变化都会导致电子停止功率的降低。对于Co射线产生的二次电子，石墨中的电子停止功率下降了约0.7%，而对于高能电子，石墨中的电子停止功率下降了1%以上。对于液态水，Iw相对增加4%，从ICRU报告37中使用的75 eV增加到78 eV，相对标准不确定度为2.6%，这也导致电子停止功率值下降。对于质子和碳离子，电子停止功率相对于先前ICRU报告中给出的值的变化分别如图7.2和7.3所示，除了上面提到的I值和密度的变化之外，这些变化是基于使用Sel/r的Bethe-Bloch表达式的改进计算，见式。(4.17)和(4.18)，并以附录中描述的低能实验数据进行补充。对于光子，在对光效应横截面的使用进行了重新归一化值的分析之后，并对确定康普顿横截面的两种选择(脉冲近似与沃勒-哈特里理论)进行了分析，给出了空气、石墨和水的质量能量吸收系数表。本报告没有就如何选择这些备选办法提出建议，但对考虑这些办法的影响作了一些讨论。重归一化与非重归一化质能的比值[j] . journal of ICRU Vol 14 No 1 (2014) Report 90 doi:10.1093/jicru/ndw033牛津大学出版社

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Report 90. 90年的报告。

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2014-01-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndw043

引用次数: 32

2. Prevention, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Treatment, and Outcome 2.预防、诊断、预后、治疗和结果

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2013-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndw005

引用次数: 0

5. Tumor and Target Volumes and Adaptive Radiotherapy 5.肿瘤和靶体积与适应性放射治疗

Journal of the ICRU

Pub Date : 2013-04-01 DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndw017

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全部 ACS Publications Elsevier ieeexplore Springer The Royal Society of Chemistry Wiley

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