The Kolmogorov complexity of a string is the minimum length of a programme that can produce that string. Information distance between two strings based on Kolmogorov complexity is defined as the minimum length of a programme that can transform either string into the other one, both ways. The second quantised Kolmogorov complexity of a quantum state is the minimum average length of a quantum programme that can reproduce that state. In this paper, a second quantised information distance is defined based on the second quantised Kolmogorov complexity. It is described as the minimum average length of a transformation quantum programme between two quantum states. This distance's basic properties are discussed. A practical analogue of quantum information distance is also developed based on quantum data compression.
{"title":"Second quantised information distance","authors":"Songsong Dai","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12050","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/qtc2.12050","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The Kolmogorov complexity of a string is the minimum length of a programme that can produce that string. Information distance between two strings based on Kolmogorov complexity is defined as the minimum length of a programme that can transform either string into the other one, both ways. The second quantised Kolmogorov complexity of a quantum state is the minimum average length of a quantum programme that can reproduce that state. In this paper, a second quantised information distance is defined based on the second quantised Kolmogorov complexity. It is described as the minimum average length of a transformation quantum programme between two quantum states. This distance's basic properties are discussed. A practical analogue of quantum information distance is also developed based on quantum data compression.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"4 1","pages":"17-24"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12050","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50146990","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In this paper, a modified formulation of generalised probabilistic theories that will always give rise to the structure of Hilbert space of quantum mechanics, in any finite outcome space, is presented and the guidelines to how to extend this work to infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces are given. Moreover, this new formulation which will be called as extended operational-probabilistic theories, applies not only to quantum systems, but also equally well to classical systems, without violating Bell's theorem, and at the same time solves the measurement problem. A new answer to the question of why our universe is quantum mechanical rather than classical will be presented. Besides, this extended probability theory shows that it is non-determinacy, or to be more precise, the non-deterministic description of the universe, that makes the laws of physics the way they are. In addition, this paper shows that there is still a possibility that there might be a deterministic level from which our universe emerges, which if understood correctly, may open the door wide to applications in areas such as quantum computing. In addition, this paper explains the deep reason why complex Hilbert spaces in quantum mechanics are needed.
{"title":"Generalised probabilistic theories in a new light","authors":"Raed Shaiia","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12045","DOIUrl":"10.1049/qtc2.12045","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In this paper, a modified formulation of generalised probabilistic theories that will always give rise to the structure of Hilbert space of quantum mechanics, in any finite outcome space, is presented and the guidelines to how to extend this work to infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces are given. Moreover, this new formulation which will be called as extended operational-probabilistic theories, applies not only to quantum systems, but also equally well to classical systems, without violating Bell's theorem, and at the same time solves the measurement problem. A new answer to the question of why our universe is quantum mechanical rather than classical will be presented. Besides, this extended probability theory shows that it is non-determinacy, or to be more precise, the non-deterministic description of the universe, that makes the laws of physics the way they are. In addition, this paper shows that there is still a possibility that there might be a deterministic level from which our universe emerges, which if understood correctly, may open the door wide to applications in areas such as quantum computing. In addition, this paper explains the deep reason why complex Hilbert spaces in quantum mechanics are needed.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"3 4","pages":"229-254"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-08-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12045","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124053287","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Medical imaging is considered one of the most important areas within scientific imaging due to the rapid and ongoing development in computer-aided medical image visualisation, advances in analysis approaches, and computer-aided diagnosis. Here, the principles of quantum computation and information to develop the field of medical image processing will be reviewed. The advancement of quantum computation in image processing has proved its outstanding properties for processing and storage capacity compared to the classical methods. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the common advanced approaches, methodologies and advanced applications in medical images based on quantum computation.
{"title":"Quantum medical images processing foundations and applications","authors":"Ahmed Elaraby","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12049","DOIUrl":"10.1049/qtc2.12049","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Medical imaging is considered one of the most important areas within scientific imaging due to the rapid and ongoing development in computer-aided medical image visualisation, advances in analysis approaches, and computer-aided diagnosis. Here, the principles of quantum computation and information to develop the field of medical image processing will be reviewed. The advancement of quantum computation in image processing has proved its outstanding properties for processing and storage capacity compared to the classical methods. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the common advanced approaches, methodologies and advanced applications in medical images based on quantum computation.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"3 4","pages":"201-213"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-08-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12049","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121052449","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Quantum communication is an integral part of quantum computing, where teleportation of a quantum state has gained significant attention from researchers. Many teleportation schemes have been introduced in the recent past. In this study, the authors compare the teleportation of a single-qubit message among different entangled channels such as the two-qubit Bell channel, three-qubit GHZ channel, two/three-qubit cluster states, a highly entangled five-qubit state (Brown et al.) and the six-qubit state (Borras et al.). The authors calculate and compare the quantum costs for these channels. The authors also study the effects of six noise models: bit-flip noise, phase-flip noise, bit-phase-flip noise, amplitude damping, phase damping and depolarising error. These noise models may affect the communication channel used for teleportation. An investigation of the variation of the initial state's fidelity is performed for the teleported state in the presence of the noise model. It is observed that the fidelity decreases in all the entangled channels as the noise parameter η increases in the range [0, 0.5] for all the noise models. The fidelity shows an upward trend in the Bell, GHZ and three-qubit cluster state channels, as η varies in the range [0.5, 1.0] for all the noise models. However, in the rest of the three channels, the fidelity substantially decreases in the case of amplitude damping, phase damping and depolarising noise, and even it reaches zero for η = 1 in Brown et al. and Borras et al. channels.
量子通信是量子计算的一个组成部分,量子态的隐形传态受到了研究人员的极大关注。最近引入了许多隐形传送方案。在这项研究中,作者比较了单个量子位消息在不同纠缠通道之间的隐形传态,如两个量子位Bell通道、三个量子位GHZ通道、两个/三个量子位簇态、高度纠缠的五个量子位数态(Brown et al.)和六个量子位数态(Borras et al.)。作者计算并比较了这些通道的量子成本。作者还研究了六种噪声模型的影响:比特翻转噪声、相位翻转噪声、比特相位翻转噪声,振幅阻尼、相位阻尼和去极化误差。这些噪声模型可能会影响用于传送的通信信道。在存在噪声模型的情况下,对隐形传态的初始状态保真度的变化进行了研究。观察到,对于所有噪声模型,随着噪声参数η在[0,0.5]范围内的增加,所有纠缠信道的保真度都会降低。在Bell、GHZ和三个量子位簇态通道中,保真度呈上升趋势,因为所有噪声模型的η在[0.5,1.0]范围内变化。然而,在其余三个通道中,在振幅阻尼、相位阻尼和去极化噪声的情况下,保真度显著降低,甚至在Brown等人。Borras等人。通道。
{"title":"Complexity analysis of quantum teleportation via different entangled channels in the presence of noise","authors":"Deepak Singh, Sanjeev Kumar, Bikash K. Behera","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/qtc2.12048","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Quantum communication is an integral part of quantum computing, where teleportation of a quantum state has gained significant attention from researchers. Many teleportation schemes have been introduced in the recent past. In this study, the authors compare the teleportation of a single-qubit message among different entangled channels such as the two-qubit Bell channel, three-qubit GHZ channel, two/three-qubit cluster states, a highly entangled five-qubit state (Brown et al.) and the six-qubit state (Borras et al.). The authors calculate and compare the quantum costs for these channels. The authors also study the effects of six noise models: bit-flip noise, phase-flip noise, bit-phase-flip noise, amplitude damping, phase damping and depolarising error. These noise models may affect the communication channel used for teleportation. An investigation of the variation of the initial state's fidelity is performed for the teleported state in the presence of the noise model. It is observed that the fidelity decreases in all the entangled channels as the noise parameter <i>η</i> increases in the range [0, 0.5] for all the noise models. The fidelity shows an upward trend in the Bell, GHZ and three-qubit cluster state channels, as <i>η</i> varies in the range [0.5, 1.0] for all the noise models. However, in the rest of the three channels, the fidelity substantially decreases in the case of amplitude damping, phase damping and depolarising noise, and even it reaches zero for <i>η</i> = 1 in Brown et al. and Borras et al. channels.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"4 1","pages":"1-16"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-08-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12048","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50124643","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This experiment was designed to test the string theory as a physical reality. The ground-based device placed the N poles of the magnets upwards, north, south, east, and west. Coil Ass'Y was placed between 2 N poles with bearing covers on the top and bottom. Gravity interacts to generate electricity in the Earth's direction or the opposite direction by the repulsive magnetic force. The voltage was measured from 3.60 to 3.80 sequentially while the generator was stationary through the monitor. The author found symmetry in Lex Tertia voltage and current zero data during experiment F4 6380 at a balanced state under gravity with the repulsive magnetic force. It generated from 42.8 to 794 μV in the vacuum chamber but from negative 16.1 to positive 18.3 μV in the air. As a result, the author measured more negative current and positive voltage generated in a vacuum. Trapped gravity was set to behave as free relativistic quantum particles or fluids in the magnetic sea. The result made it accessible to study the magnetic sea for different initial superpositions of positive- and negative-gravity spinor states. This might explain the relativistic quantum gravity exists as a physical reality, graviton interacting with photons to induce a magnetic field.
{"title":"Experiment regarding magnetic fields with gravity","authors":"Jong Hoon Lee","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12047","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/qtc2.12047","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This experiment was designed to test the string theory as a physical reality. The ground-based device placed the N poles of the magnets upwards, north, south, east, and west. Coil Ass'Y was placed between 2 N poles with bearing covers on the top and bottom. Gravity interacts to generate electricity in the Earth's direction or the opposite direction by the repulsive magnetic force. The voltage was measured from 3.60 to 3.80 sequentially while the generator was stationary through the monitor. The author found symmetry in Lex Tertia voltage and current zero data during experiment F4 6380 at a balanced state under gravity with the repulsive magnetic force. It generated from 42.8 to 794 μV in the vacuum chamber but from negative 16.1 to positive 18.3 μV in the air. As a result, the author measured more negative current and positive voltage generated in a vacuum. Trapped gravity was set to behave as free relativistic quantum particles or fluids in the magnetic sea. The result made it accessible to study the magnetic sea for different initial superpositions of positive- and negative-gravity spinor states. This might explain the relativistic quantum gravity exists as a physical reality, graviton interacting with photons to induce a magnetic field.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"3 4","pages":"218-228"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12047","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"137543133","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
According to the quantum adiabatic theorem, we can in principle obtain a true vacuum of a quantum system starting from a trivial vacuum of a simple Hamiltonian. In actual adiabatic digital quantum simulation with finite time length and non-infinitesimal time steps, we can only obtain an approximate vacuum that is supposed to be a superposition of a true vacuum and excited states. We propose a procedure to improve the approximate vacuum.
{"title":"Improving approximate vacuum prepared by the adiabatic quantum computation","authors":"Kazuto Oshima","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12046","DOIUrl":"10.1049/qtc2.12046","url":null,"abstract":"<p>According to the quantum adiabatic theorem, we can in principle obtain a true vacuum of a quantum system starting from a trivial vacuum of a simple Hamiltonian. In actual adiabatic digital quantum simulation with finite time length and non-infinitesimal time steps, we can only obtain an approximate vacuum that is supposed to be a superposition of a true vacuum and excited states. We propose a procedure to improve the approximate vacuum.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"3 4","pages":"214-217"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-07-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12046","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132528244","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Ruiqi Liu, Georgi Gary Rozenman, Neel Kanth Kundu, Daryus Chandra, Debashis De
Quantum information and communication technology will lead us to the new era of ultra-fast and absolute-secure networks. With the emergence of quantum supremacy on the horizon, the security of various classical encryption systems soon may be deemed obsolete. As a remedy, quantum key distribution (QKD) is proposed as a novel quantum-based secret keys exchange, which is developed to solve the problems of legacy encryption. It is anticipated that QKD will provide stronger security for future communication systems even in the presence of malicious quantum attacks. As the QKD research and development is getting mature, the theoretical use cases of QKD in various industries are proliferating. In this treatise, we summarise the potential applications of QKD for future communication technology while highlighting the ongoing standardisation efforts essential for the sustainability and reliability of the near-future deployment. Additionally, we also present the various challenges faced by both discrete variable and continuous variable QKD schemes hindering their widespread implementation into our future communication networks.
{"title":"Towards the industrialisation of quantum key distribution in communication networks: A short survey","authors":"Ruiqi Liu, Georgi Gary Rozenman, Neel Kanth Kundu, Daryus Chandra, Debashis De","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12044","DOIUrl":"10.1049/qtc2.12044","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Quantum information and communication technology will lead us to the new era of ultra-fast and absolute-secure networks. With the emergence of quantum supremacy on the horizon, the security of various classical encryption systems soon may be deemed obsolete. As a remedy, quantum key distribution (QKD) is proposed as a novel quantum-based secret keys exchange, which is developed to solve the problems of legacy encryption. It is anticipated that QKD will provide stronger security for future communication systems even in the presence of malicious quantum attacks. As the QKD research and development is getting mature, the theoretical use cases of QKD in various industries are proliferating. In this treatise, we summarise the potential applications of QKD for future communication technology while highlighting the ongoing standardisation efforts essential for the sustainability and reliability of the near-future deployment. Additionally, we also present the various challenges faced by both discrete variable and continuous variable QKD schemes hindering their widespread implementation into our future communication networks.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"3 3","pages":"151-163"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-06-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12044","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114897932","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Ranveer Kumar Singh, Bishvanwesha Panda, Bikash K. Behera, Prasanta K. Panigrahi
Quantum error detection has always been a fundamental challenge in a fault-tolerant quantum computer. Hence, it is of immense importance to detect and deal with arbitrary errors to efficiently perform quantum computation. Several error detection codes have been proposed and realised for lower number of qubit systems. Here we present an error detection code for a (2n + 1)-qubit entangled state using two syndrome qubits and simulate it on International Business Machines 16-qubit quantum computer for a 13-qubit entangled system. The code is able to detect an arbitrary quantum error in any one of the first 2n qubits of the (2n + 1)-qubit entangled state and detects any bit-flip error on the last qubit of the (2n + 1)-qubit entangled state via measurements on a pair of ancillary error syndrome qubits. The protocol presented here paves the way for designing error detection codes for the general higher number of entangled qubit systems.
{"title":"Demonstration of a general fault-tolerant quantum error detection code for (2n + 1)-qubit entangled state on IBM 16-qubit quantum computer","authors":"Ranveer Kumar Singh, Bishvanwesha Panda, Bikash K. Behera, Prasanta K. Panigrahi","doi":"10.1049/qtc2.12043","DOIUrl":"10.1049/qtc2.12043","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Quantum error detection has always been a fundamental challenge in a fault-tolerant quantum computer. Hence, it is of immense importance to detect and deal with arbitrary errors to efficiently perform quantum computation. Several error detection codes have been proposed and realised for lower number of qubit systems. Here we present an error detection code for a (2<i>n</i> + 1)-qubit entangled state using two syndrome qubits and simulate it on International Business Machines 16-qubit quantum computer for a 13-qubit entangled system. The code is able to detect an arbitrary quantum error in any one of the first 2<i>n</i> qubits of the (2<i>n</i> + 1)-qubit entangled state and detects any bit-flip error on the last qubit of the (2<i>n</i> + 1)-qubit entangled state via measurements on a pair of ancillary error syndrome qubits. The protocol presented here paves the way for designing error detection codes for the general higher number of entangled qubit systems.</p>","PeriodicalId":100651,"journal":{"name":"IET Quantum Communication","volume":"3 3","pages":"184-199"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/qtc2.12043","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115997159","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Surface codes are quantum error correcting codes typically defined on a 2D array of qubits. A [dx, dz] surface code design is being introduced, where dx(dz) represents the distance of the code for bit (phase) error correction, motivated by the fact that the severity of bit flip and phase flip errors in the physical quantum system is asymmetric. We present pseudo-threshold and threshold values for the proposed surface code design for asymmetric error channels in the presence of various degrees of asymmetry of