Contemporary Educational Psychology最新文献_第6页

Maximizing the benefits of student-generated drawing for real-world problem solving 最大限度地利用学生生成的图纸来解决现实世界的问题

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-04-14 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102369

Johanna Schoenherr , Richard E. Mayer

Solving real-world problems is a challenge for many students. The two-pathway model of student-generated drawing for real-world problem solving states that problem-solving performance is maximized when students make drawings that are (1) accurate and (2) in mathematical format. We investigated how drawing accuracy and problem-solving performance are affected by presence or absence of drawing support in the form of providing thumbnail representations of the key elements to be used in the drawing (intended to enhance drawing accuracy) and providing mathematical drawing instructions to create schematic representations (intended to prime mathematical format in drawings) or situational drawing instructions to create pictorial representations (intended to prime drawings with extraneous situational elements). In a 2 x 2 between-subjects experiment with drawing support (supported drawing or unsupported drawing) and drawing instructions (situational drawing instructions or mathematical drawing instructions) as factors, 112 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of four drawing conditions. In line with the two-pathway model, we found that students provided with drawing support and mathematical drawing instructions outperformed those in other conditions on solving real-world problems. Based on path analyses, this effect was attributed to higher drawing accuracy and fewer extraneous situational elements in their drawings. Results support the two-pathway model of how student-generating drawing can support real-world problem solving.

对许多学生来说，解决现实世界的问题是一个挑战。学生生成的用于解决现实问题的图形的双路径模型表明，当学生绘制的图形(1)准确且(2)符合数学格式时，解决问题的性能将最大化。我们通过提供绘图中使用的关键元素的缩略图表示（旨在提高绘图准确性）和提供数学绘图说明来创建示意图表示（旨在在绘图中初始化数学格式）或情境绘图说明来创建图形表示（旨在初始化绘图）的形式，研究了绘图准确性和问题解决能力如何受到绘图支持的影响无关的情境因素)。在2 × 2的受试者间实验中，以绘图支持（有支持的绘图或无支持的绘图）和绘图指示（情景绘图指示或数学绘图指示）为因素，将112名本科生随机分配到四种绘图条件之一。根据双路径模型，我们发现在绘图支持和数学绘图指导下，学生在解决现实问题上的表现优于其他条件下的学生。基于路径分析，这种影响归因于更高的绘图精度和更少的无关情境因素。结果支持学生生成的绘画如何支持解决现实问题的双途径模型。

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引用次数: 0

Chatbots in education: Outperforming students but perceived as less trustworthy 教育领域的聊天机器人：表现优于学生，但被认为不那么值得信赖

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-04-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102373

Martin Laun , Leonard Puderbach , Katharina Hirt , Eva L. Wyss , Daniel Friemert , Ulrich Hartmann , Fabian Wolff

In recent years, chatbots have emerged as potential individual assistance systems in educational settings. However, their successful implementation depends on their ability to deliver high-quality outcomes and gain students’ trust. Against this background, this study investigated the perceived trustworthiness of chatbots in nursing education and whether this trust was justified in light of chatbots’ actual performance in care plan creation. We conducted a study with 189 vocational nursing students who created medical care plans under two conditions: without ChatGPT (GPT-4) and with ChatGPT assistance. Additionally, ChatGPT was used to develop care plans without student involvement. Expert evaluations of these care plans allowed us to compare quality across conditions. We also examined students’ trust by having them evaluate another care plan before and after experimentally manipulating information about its source (chatbot or peer-generated). Statistical analyses revealed that source disclosure significantly affected students’ trust: Care plans believed to be chatbot-generated experienced a significant decrease in trust, while those attributed to peers showed no significant change. However, analyses of expert evaluations showed that ChatGPT-generated plans were of higher quality than those created by students, even when students used ChatGPT assistance. This discrepancy between perceived trustworthiness and actual performance of chatbots indicates that students’ skepticism toward chatbot-generated content is, to some extent, exaggerated. While ChatGPT can enhance students’ care plan quality, our findings emphasize the importance of addressing trust issues in educational settings where chatbots are implemented.

近年来，聊天机器人已经成为教育环境中潜在的个人辅助系统。然而，他们的成功实施取决于他们提供高质量成果和获得学生信任的能力。在此背景下，本研究调查了聊天机器人在护理教育中的感知可信度，以及根据聊天机器人在护理计划制定中的实际表现，这种信任是否合理。我们对189名职业护理专业的学生进行了一项研究，他们在两种情况下制定了医疗保健计划：没有ChatGPT （GPT-4）和有ChatGPT帮助。此外，ChatGPT被用于制定没有学生参与的护理计划。对这些护理计划的专家评估使我们能够比较不同条件下的质量。我们还通过实验操纵信息来源（聊天机器人或同伴生成）之前和之后，让学生评估另一个护理计划，来检验学生的信任。统计分析显示，来源披露显著影响了学生的信任：被认为是聊天机器人生成的护理计划的信任度显著下降，而被认为是同伴生成的护理计划的信任度没有显著变化。然而，专家评估的分析表明，即使学生使用ChatGPT辅助，ChatGPT生成的计划也比学生创建的计划质量更高。聊天机器人的感知可信度与实际表现之间的差异表明，学生对聊天机器人生成内容的怀疑在某种程度上被夸大了。虽然ChatGPT可以提高学生护理计划的质量，但我们的研究结果强调了在实施聊天机器人的教育环境中解决信任问题的重要性。

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引用次数: 0

The mediation role of executive functions as predictors between physical activity and academic performance in high school students 执行功能在高中生体育活动与学业成绩之间的中介作用

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-04-08 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102364

Fernando Martín-Bozas , Elena Escolano-Pérez , Marta Bestué-Laguna

Several studies have highlighted the intricate interplay between physical activity, executive functions, and academic performance. However, the nuanced relationships among these variables necessitate further investigation into the roles of physical activity and executive functions as predictors or mediators of academic success. A study was conducted with a convenience sample comprising 172 Spanish high school students. This study assessed physical activity levels, executive functions (specifically focusing on cognitive components such as attention and inhibition, as well as the affective component of emotional regulation), and academic performance. The findings revealed several key insights: firstly, both physical activity and cognitive executive functions (specifically attention and inhibition) emerged as significant predictors of academic performance. However, emotional regulation did not show a significant predictive relationship. Secondly, cognitive executive functions (attention and inhibition) were found to partially mediate the association between physical activity and academic performance. These results suggest that interventions targeting improvements in both physical activity levels and cognitive executive functions, particularly attention and inhibition, may yield positive outcomes in terms of academic performance among students in compulsory secondary education.

一些研究强调了身体活动、执行功能和学习成绩之间复杂的相互作用。然而，这些变量之间的微妙关系需要进一步研究体育活动和执行功能作为学业成功的预测或中介的作用。一项研究以方便的样本进行，包括172名西班牙高中生。这项研究评估了身体活动水平、执行功能（特别关注认知成分，如注意力和抑制，以及情绪调节的情感成分）和学业成绩。研究结果揭示了几个关键的见解：首先，身体活动和认知执行功能（特别是注意力和抑制）都是学习成绩的重要预测因素。然而，情绪调节并没有显示出显著的预测关系。其次，认知执行功能（注意和抑制）在体育活动与学业成绩之间起部分中介作用。这些结果表明，针对改善身体活动水平和认知执行功能，特别是注意力和抑制能力的干预措施，可能会对义务中等教育学生的学业成绩产生积极的影响。

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引用次数: 0

How much formalization of assessment methods is useful when implementing formative assessment in second grade mathematics classrooms? 在二年级数学课堂实施形成性评估时，评估方法的形式化有多大作用？

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-05-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102376

Larissa Aust , Jeanne-Celine Linker , Luise Eichholz , Jana Schiffer , Marcus Nührenbörger , Christoph Selter , Elmar Souvignier

Student achievement has been found to benefit from formative assessment (FA), but only few studies have directly compared different FA approaches. In the present study, two differently structured FA approaches were compared: While teachers in the first experimental group (curriculum-embedded assessment (CE), 19 classes, N = 431students) used written task sets for assessment, teachers in the second experimental group (planned-for-interaction assessment (PI), 22 classes, N = 492 students) were trained in conducting focused conversations for assessment with their students throughout the school year. Results suggest a slight advantage of CE in terms of math achievement, whereas PI was associated with significantly higher scores on the variable need for cognition. Students’ academic self-concept did not differ between groups, and results were not affected by students’ achievement level or teacher characteristics. Consequently, it seems promising to combine the highly structured CE approach with the more flexible PI approach.

学生的成绩已被发现受益于形成性评估（FA），但只有少数研究直接比较不同的FA方法。在本研究中，比较了两种不同结构的FA方法：第一个实验组（课程嵌入评估（CE）， 19个班级，N = 431名学生）的教师使用书面任务集进行评估，第二个实验组（计划互动评估（PI）， 22个班级，N = 492名学生）的教师在整个学年中都接受了与学生进行重点对话评估的培训。结果表明，CE在数学成绩方面有轻微的优势，而PI在认知需求这一变量上的得分明显更高。学生的学业自我概念在组间无显著差异，成绩水平和教师特征不影响结果。因此，将高度结构化的CE方法与更灵活的PI方法结合起来似乎很有希望。

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引用次数: 0

Teacher feedback and students’ self-concept, intrinsic value, and achievement in mathematics: Juxtaposing between- and within-person perspectives on long-term reciprocal relationships 教师反馈与学生的自我概念、内在价值和数学成就：长期互惠关系的个人视角与个人视角的并列

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-04-02 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102365

Nicolas Hübner , Naomi Winstone , Samuel Merk , John Hattie

For decades, the feedback teachers give to students has been discussed as one of the most powerful predictors of students’ motivation and achievement. Previous studies have suggested that the type of feedback and its degree of elaboration, immediacy, and relatability are central to its effectiveness. However, these factors explain only some of the variability in the effects of feedback on students’ motivation and achievement. Thus, more recent work has proposed a shift toward models that more strongly emphasize the role of the student in the effectiveness of feedback. In this study, we answer the call for a stronger focus on the student when investigating the long-term interplay between students’ perceptions of teacher feedback and students’ motivation and achievement by using rich data from 2,121 German lower secondary school students who were repeatedly assessed in Grades 5 to 7. More specifically, we used full-forward cross-lagged panel models (FF-CLPMs) and random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) to investigate reciprocal relationships between students’ perceptions of different types of teacher feedback (i.e., at the self-level, the process level, and the self-regulation level) and students’ self-concept, intrinsic value, and achievement in mathematics. By considering these variables simultaneously, we found evidence of associations between prior self-concept, intrinsic value, achievement, and perceptions of different forms of subsequent teacher feedback. Furthermore, we found that prior perceptions of feedback were positively related to subsequent self-concept. Our results underscore the need to more thoroughly investigate how feedback is longitudinally and reciprocally related to students’ motivation and achievement.

几十年来，教师给予学生的反馈一直被认为是学生动机和成就的最有力预测因素之一。先前的研究表明，反馈的类型及其详细程度、即时性和相关性是其有效性的核心。然而，这些因素只能解释反馈对学生动机和成就影响的部分变化。因此，最近的研究提出了一种模式的转变，即更强调学生在反馈有效性中的作用。在这项研究中，我们回应了在调查学生对教师反馈的看法与学生动机和成就之间的长期相互作用时更加关注学生的呼吁，使用了来自2,121名德国初中学生的丰富数据，这些学生在五年级到七年级被反复评估。更具体地说，我们使用全前向交叉滞后面板模型（ff - clpm）和随机截点交叉滞后面板模型（ri - clpm）来研究学生对不同类型教师反馈（即自我水平、过程水平和自我调节水平）的感知与学生的自我概念、内在价值和数学成绩之间的相互关系。通过同时考虑这些变量，我们发现了先前的自我概念、内在价值、成就和对不同形式的后续教师反馈的感知之间存在关联的证据。此外，我们发现先前的反馈知觉与随后的自我概念呈正相关。我们的研究结果强调，有必要更彻底地调查反馈与学生的动机和成就之间的纵向和相互关系。

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引用次数: 0

Developing teacher resilience by modifying cognitive appraisals: What is reappraised in teacher reappraisal? 通过修改认知评价来发展教师弹性：教师重评价中的重评价是什么？

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-03-04 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102354

Marc Clarà , Alba Vallés , Aina Franch , Jordi Coiduras , Patricia Silva , Sílvia Cavalcante

Today it is well established that the modification of cognitive appraisals –i.e. the way people represent the situations they face- is central to the development of teacher resilience. However, the understanding of the specific transformations in the appraisals that lead to this development is still incipient. This paper investigates a teacher’s spontaneous process of reappraisal –i.e. modification of appraisals-, occurring over a period of approximately two years, and identifies two narrative mechanisms of reappraisal connected to her improvement in teacher depersonalization. The understanding of these two mechanisms, called “elaboration of antecedents” and “identification,” enriches the existing research on reappraisal and has important implications for fostering the development of teacher resilience.

今天，认知评价的修正——即。人们描述他们所面临的情况的方式是教师应变能力发展的核心。然而，对导致这一发展的评估中的具体转变的理解仍处于初级阶段。本文考察了教师自发的再评价过程，即教师自我评价的过程。评估的修改，发生在大约两年的时间里，并确定了两种重新评估的叙述机制，这些机制与她在教师去人格化方面的改善有关。对这两种机制的理解，即“前事的细化”和“认同”，丰富了现有的重新评价研究，对促进教师心理弹性的发展具有重要意义。

引用次数: 0

Nonengagement and unsuccessful engagement with feedback in lower secondary education: The role of student characteristics 初中教育中的不参与和不成功参与反馈：学生特点的作用

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-03-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102363

Jennifer Meyer , Thorben Jansen , Johanna Fleckenstein

Feedback can be a powerful learning intervention and learners’ active engagement is assumed to be one of the most important determinants of feedback effectiveness. But not all students successfully engage with feedback. In the present study, we aimed to make students’ engagement with feedback visible by focusing on their text revisions as an indicator of feedback response. On the basis of theoretical models of feedback processing, we differentiated between behavioral nonengagement (i.e., not revising at all after receiving feedback) and unsuccessful engagement (i.e., revising after receiving feedback, but not improving in the process). Capitalizing on this distinction, we compared the characteristics of students in both groups with those of students who (successfully) engaged with the feedback. We provided automated computer-based feedback on a writing task to a sample of 937 students in lower secondary education in Germany (49% female, Grades 7[28%], 8 [29%], and 9[43%]), asking students to revise their texts according to the feedback. We found that 20% of the students did not make any revisions to their text after receiving feedback (nonengagement) and that 47% of the students did not improve their performance after working with the feedback during a text revision (unsuccessful engagement). Male students and students with lower cognitive abilities were more likely to show nonengagement. For unsuccessful engagement, cognitive abilities and the English grade were relevant predictors, hinting at the role that domain-specific competencies play in translating feedback into effective revision. We also found significant positive associations of intrinsic task value with successful feedback engagement. We discuss how future research could advance understanding of feedback processing by taking a more fine-grained approach to investigating feedback response.

反馈可以是一种强大的学习干预，学习者的积极参与被认为是反馈有效性的最重要决定因素之一。但并不是所有的学生都能成功地接受反馈。在本研究中，我们的目的是通过关注学生的文本修改作为反馈反应的指标，使学生对反馈的参与可见。在反馈处理理论模型的基础上，我们区分了行为不参与（即收到反馈后根本不修改）和不成功参与（即收到反馈后修改，但在此过程中没有改进）。利用这一区别，我们将两组学生的特征与那些（成功地）参与反馈的学生的特征进行了比较。我们对937名德国初中学生（女性占49%，7年级[28%]，8年级[29%]和9年级[43%]）的写作任务提供了基于计算机的自动反馈，要求学生根据反馈修改他们的文本。我们发现，20%的学生在收到反馈后没有对他们的文本进行任何修改（不参与），47%的学生在文本修改期间使用反馈后没有提高他们的表现（不成功的参与）。男学生和认知能力较低的学生更有可能表现出不投入。对于不成功的参与，认知能力和英语成绩是相关的预测因素，这暗示了特定领域的能力在将反馈转化为有效的复习中所起的作用。我们还发现，内在任务价值与成功的反馈参与之间存在显著的正相关。我们讨论了未来的研究如何通过采用更细粒度的方法来调查反馈反应来促进对反馈处理的理解。

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引用次数: 0

The storage component of working memory mediates the relationship between mathematical anxiety and arithmetic performance 工作记忆的储存成分在数学焦虑与算术成绩之间起中介作用

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-04-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102372

Wei Wei , Shiqiao Shen

Mathematical anxiety is negatively associated with mathematics performance. Previous studies have demonstrated that working memory mediates this relationship. Although there are many theories on working memory, most agree that working memory includes a storage component (i.e., short-term memory). However, little is known about the role of short-term memory in the relationship between mathematical anxiety and mathematics performance. In this study, we investigated whether short-term memory mediates the relationship between mathematical anxiety and arithmetic performance. The participants were 178 children aged 8–10 years. They were asked to complete mathematical and trait anxiety questionnaires and a battery of cognitive tests to measure exact arithmetic and arithmetic estimation abilities, working memory, and short-term memory. We found that after controlling for trait anxiety, age, and gender, the relationship between mathematical anxiety and exact arithmetic ability was mediated by the storage but not by the executive component of working memory. In addition, the mediating effect was influenced by the type and difficulty of arithmetic tasks. These findings suggest that mathematical anxiety impairs arithmetic performance through the storage component of working memory. The results suggest that educators should pay more attention to the role of short-term memory in mathematics teaching.

数学焦虑与数学成绩呈负相关。先前的研究已经证明，工作记忆介导了这种关系。虽然有很多关于工作记忆的理论，但大多数人都认为工作记忆包括存储部分（即短期记忆）。然而，人们对短期记忆在数学焦虑和数学成绩之间的关系中所起的作用知之甚少。在本研究中，我们探讨了短期记忆是否在数学焦虑和算术成绩之间起中介作用。参与者是178名8-10岁的儿童。他们被要求完成数学和特质焦虑问卷，以及一系列认知测试，以衡量精确算术和算术估计能力、工作记忆和短期记忆。我们发现，在控制特质焦虑、年龄和性别后，数学焦虑与精确算术能力的关系是由工作记忆的储存部分介导的，而不是由工作记忆的执行部分介导的。此外，算术任务的类型和难度对中介效应也有影响。这些发现表明，数学焦虑通过工作记忆的存储部分损害算术表现。研究结果提示教育工作者应重视短期记忆在数学教学中的作用。

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引用次数: 0

Precursors of students’ cost perceptions: Identifying proximal and distal predictors 学生成本感知的前体：识别近端和远端预测因子

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-04-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102374

Elise C. Allen , Patrick N. Beymer , Emily Q. Rosenzweig

Studies of students’ cost perceptions have been prevalent in recent years; however, little work has examined what may precede the formation of these costs. Understanding predictors of cost may allow for the implementation of more established interventions in these areas. For example, interventions to increase belonging may serve to subsequently reduce students’ perceptions of cost. Such established interventions with more consistent results in the literature may provide a promising pathway to reduce costs as compared to intervening on cost directly, since these direct interventions have produced mixed results to date. In the present study, we examined proximal and distal precursors of students’ (N = 321) weekly cost perceptions throughout a semester in college physics using a weekly diary survey. Costs were examined across four dimensions: task effort, outside effort, loss of valued alternatives, and emotional cost. Multilevel modeling indicated that weekly measures of belonging and self-regulated learning predicted lower levels of nearly all cost types. Meanwhile, baseline measures of students’ expectancies for success and physics identity were non-significant. The number of credits students were enrolled in also did not predict costs. This study contributes to better understanding how cost perceptions are formed and has implications for contributing to future interventions aimed at reducing costs.

近年来，关于学生成本认知的研究非常流行；然而，很少有人研究这些成本形成之前可能发生的情况。了解成本预测因素可能有助于在这些领域实施更成熟的干预措施。例如，增加归属感的干预措施可能有助于随后降低学生对成本的感知。与直接干预成本相比，这些在文献中具有更一致结果的既定干预措施可能提供了一种有希望的降低成本的途径，因为这些直接干预措施迄今为止产生了好坏参半的结果。在本研究中，我们使用每周日记调查的方法，在整个学期的大学物理课程中，检测了学生（N = 321）每周成本感知的近端和远端前体。成本从四个方面进行了考察：任务努力、外部努力、有价值的替代方案的损失和情感成本。多层模型表明，每周归属和自我调节学习的测量预测了几乎所有成本类型的较低水平。与此同时，学生对成功和物理认同的期望的基线测量不显著。学生注册的学分数量也不能预测成本。这项研究有助于更好地理解成本观念是如何形成的，并对未来旨在降低成本的干预措施有所帮助。

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引用次数: 0

Investigating Adolescents’ Execution Speed of Social, Dimensional, and Temporal Comparisons 调查青少年社会、维度和时间比较的执行速度

IF 3.9 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL

Contemporary Educational Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-06-01 Epub Date: 2025-03-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102362

Jennifer Schumacher, Hella Hörsch, Fabian Wolff

Social, dimensional, and temporal comparisons influence students’ academic self-concepts to different degrees. Typically, social comparison effects are stronger than dimensional comparison effects, which in turn are stronger than temporal comparison effects. A possible explanation for these different comparison effects could be differences in the cognitive processes involved in social, dimensional, and temporal comparisons. To gain insight into this issue, the present study addresses the execution speed of social, dimensional, and temporal comparisons using a response time experiment, in which N = 209 students (9th and 10th grade) were asked to evaluate their achievements in various subjects in relation to social, dimensional, and temporal comparison standards. Response times to social, dimensional, and temporal comparisons were compared using a repeated measures ANOVA and were found to be shortest for temporal comparisons and longest for social comparisons. Moreover, they were shorter when comparisons used non-specific comparison standards (i.e., multiple people/subjects/points in time) compared to specific comparison standards (i.e., single person/subject/point in time). Accordingly, temporal comparisons appear to facilitate the fastest execution speed, followed by dimensional comparisons, and then social comparisons. Furthermore, non-specific comparisons appear to facilitate a faster execution speed than specific comparisons.

社会比较、维度比较和时间比较对学生学业自我概念有不同程度的影响。通常，社会比较效应强于维度比较效应，而维度比较效应又强于时间比较效应。对于这些不同的比较效应，一个可能的解释可能是涉及社会、维度和时间比较的认知过程的差异。为了深入了解这一问题，本研究采用反应时间实验来研究社会、维度和时间比较的执行速度，在该实验中，N = 209名学生（9年级和10年级）被要求评估他们在不同科目中与社会、维度和时间比较标准相关的成就。使用重复测量方差分析比较社会、维度和时间比较的反应时间，发现时间比较的反应时间最短，社会比较的反应时间最长。此外，使用非特定比较标准（即多人/受试者/时间点）的比较比使用特定比较标准（即单个人/受试者/时间点）的比较要短。因此，时间比较似乎促进了最快的执行速度，其次是维度比较，然后是社会比较。此外，非特定比较似乎比特定比较有助于更快的执行速度。

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引用次数: 0