This chapter outlines the basic concepts of magnetism in order to further enhance the understanding of the magnetic properties of electrical steels. Starting from the simplest form of the magnetic dipole, the authors describe magnetisation, magnetic polarisation, magnetic flux density, permeability and the relationship between these concepts. The difficulty in modeling magnetic hysteresis in engineering disciplines is also analysed. Finally, the authors explain how the crystal structure affects the magnetism of silicon-iron electrical steels and the ideal grain orientation for optimised magnetic properties.
{"title":"Basic magnetic concepts","authors":"A. Moses, P. Anderson, K. Jenkins, H. Stanbury","doi":"10.1049/pbpo157f_ch2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/pbpo157f_ch2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter outlines the basic concepts of magnetism in order to further enhance the understanding of the magnetic properties of electrical steels. Starting from the simplest form of the magnetic dipole, the authors describe magnetisation, magnetic polarisation, magnetic flux density, permeability and the relationship between these concepts. The difficulty in modeling magnetic hysteresis in engineering disciplines is also analysed. Finally, the authors explain how the crystal structure affects the magnetism of silicon-iron electrical steels and the ideal grain orientation for optimised magnetic properties.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81050189","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Current production methods of electrical steels follow the process routes used in typical steel sheet product process, starting with the production of the liquid steel from either the basic oxygen steelmaking process (BOS) using liquid iron produced in blast furnaces as the main constituent, or electric arc steel making where the main constituent is steel scrap produced by recycling. There is no particular advantage for electrical steels in using either route. This chapter considers the production methods of electrical steels and the effects of each method on the final composition and crystal structure and microstructure.
{"title":"Production of electrical steels","authors":"A. Moses, P. Anderson, K. Jenkins, H. Stanbury","doi":"10.1049/pbpo157f_ch14","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/pbpo157f_ch14","url":null,"abstract":"Current production methods of electrical steels follow the process routes used in typical steel sheet product process, starting with the production of the liquid steel from either the basic oxygen steelmaking process (BOS) using liquid iron produced in blast furnaces as the main constituent, or electric arc steel making where the main constituent is steel scrap produced by recycling. There is no particular advantage for electrical steels in using either route. This chapter considers the production methods of electrical steels and the effects of each method on the final composition and crystal structure and microstructure.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87724515","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This chapter discusses the production and applications of iron powder and ferrite magnetic cores. More recently, iron and SiFe bulk components have been developed and commercialised for applications requiring mass produced, cheap, mechanically strong and dimensionally accurate net shape cores for magnetic components. These iron and silicon iron compressed components are commonly referred to as soft magnetic composite (SMC) cores or consolidated powder cores. General advances in powder metallurgy have resulted in their applications in many sectors, particularly as functional materials, replacing laminated cores for small motors and actuators in the automotive and aerospace industries. The authors focus on the magnetic properties of these cores such as magnetisation, magnetic permeability and loss components.
{"title":"Consolidated iron powder and ferrite cores","authors":"A. Moses, P. Anderson, K. Jenkins, H. Stanbury","doi":"10.1049/pbpo157f_ch17","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/pbpo157f_ch17","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter discusses the production and applications of iron powder and ferrite magnetic cores. More recently, iron and SiFe bulk components have been developed and commercialised for applications requiring mass produced, cheap, mechanically strong and dimensionally accurate net shape cores for magnetic components. These iron and silicon iron compressed components are commonly referred to as soft magnetic composite (SMC) cores or consolidated powder cores. General advances in powder metallurgy have resulted in their applications in many sectors, particularly as functional materials, replacing laminated cores for small motors and actuators in the automotive and aerospace industries. The authors focus on the magnetic properties of these cores such as magnetisation, magnetic permeability and loss components.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84105545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The magnetic domain structure of a magnetic material determines its magnetic properties. When the domain structure changes, perhaps due to factors such as temperature variation, mechanical stress or the presence of an external magnetic field, magnetic properties also change, in a beneficial or detrimental way. The physics controlling the formation and structure of domains, as well as the dynamics of so-called domain wall motion and domain rotation is quite well understood, but it is very complicated and difficult to apply to materials with complex metallurgical structure such as electrical steels. Magnetic domains of direct relevance to electrical steels are covered in Chapter 1 of Volume 2 of this book. In this chapter their origin and basic structures are explained.
{"title":"Magnetic domains, energy minimisation and magnetostriction","authors":"A. Moses, P. Anderson, K. Jenkins, H. Stanbury","doi":"10.1049/pbpo157f_ch3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/pbpo157f_ch3","url":null,"abstract":"The magnetic domain structure of a magnetic material determines its magnetic properties. When the domain structure changes, perhaps due to factors such as temperature variation, mechanical stress or the presence of an external magnetic field, magnetic properties also change, in a beneficial or detrimental way. The physics controlling the formation and structure of domains, as well as the dynamics of so-called domain wall motion and domain rotation is quite well understood, but it is very complicated and difficult to apply to materials with complex metallurgical structure such as electrical steels. Magnetic domains of direct relevance to electrical steels are covered in Chapter 1 of Volume 2 of this book. In this chapter their origin and basic structures are explained.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78944140","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This chapter introduces fundamental aspects of the rotational magnetisation process and its general effect on losses and magnetostriction in both isotropic and highly anisotropic material, such as GO electrical steel. In a core assembled from electrical steel, the magnetic field and flux density probably will vary in magnitude from point to point within the material. Also, under a.c. magnetisation its time varying waveform might be non-sinusoidal. Furthermore, the direction of B and H at a given point within the core material might vary with time. These effects are loosely referred to as being rotational magnetisation phenomena.
{"title":"Rotational magnetisation and losses","authors":"A. Moses, P. Anderson, K. Jenkins, H. Stanbury","doi":"10.1049/pbpo157f_ch8","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/pbpo157f_ch8","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter introduces fundamental aspects of the rotational magnetisation process and its general effect on losses and magnetostriction in both isotropic and highly anisotropic material, such as GO electrical steel. In a core assembled from electrical steel, the magnetic field and flux density probably will vary in magnitude from point to point within the material. Also, under a.c. magnetisation its time varying waveform might be non-sinusoidal. Furthermore, the direction of B and H at a given point within the core material might vary with time. These effects are loosely referred to as being rotational magnetisation phenomena.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-05-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73959228","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2015-01-01DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410133
Austenite is the key to the versatility of steel and the controllable nature of its properties. It is the parent phase of pearlite, martensite, bainite, and ferrite. This chapter discusses the importance of austenite, beginning with the influence of austenitic grain size and how to accurately measure it. It then describes the principles of austenite formation and grain growth and examines several time-temperature-austenitizing diagrams representing various alloying and processing conditions. The chapter concludes with a discussion on hot deformation and subsequent recrystallization.
{"title":"Austenite in Steel","authors":"","doi":"10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410133","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410133","url":null,"abstract":"Austenite is the key to the versatility of steel and the controllable nature of its properties. It is the parent phase of pearlite, martensite, bainite, and ferrite. This chapter discusses the importance of austenite, beginning with the influence of austenitic grain size and how to accurately measure it. It then describes the principles of austenite formation and grain growth and examines several time-temperature-austenitizing diagrams representing various alloying and processing conditions. The chapter concludes with a discussion on hot deformation and subsequent recrystallization.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2015-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82823304","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2015-01-01DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410293
Medium-carbon steels are typically hardened for high-strength, high-fatigue-resistant applications by austenitizing, quenching to martensite, and tempering. This chapter explains how microalloying with vanadium, niobium, and/or titanium provides an alternate way to improve the mechanical properties of such steels. It also addresses microalloyed forging steels and explains how nontraditional bainitic microstructures can be produced by direct cooling after forging.
{"title":"Non-Martensitic Strengthening of Medium-Carbon Steels—Microalloying and Bainitic Strengthening","authors":"","doi":"10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410293","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410293","url":null,"abstract":"Medium-carbon steels are typically hardened for high-strength, high-fatigue-resistant applications by austenitizing, quenching to martensite, and tempering. This chapter explains how microalloying with vanadium, niobium, and/or titanium provides an alternate way to improve the mechanical properties of such steels. It also addresses microalloyed forging steels and explains how nontraditional bainitic microstructures can be produced by direct cooling after forging.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2015-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77295054","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2015-01-01DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410113
This chapter describes the ferritic microstructures that form in carbon steels under continuous cooling conditions. It begins with a review of the Dubé classification system for crystal morphologies. It then explains how cooling-rate-induced changes involving carbon atom diffusion and the associated rearrangement of iron atoms produce the wide variety of morphologies and microstructures observed in ferrite. The chapter also describes a classification system developed specifically for ferritic microstructures and uses it to compare common forms of ferrite, including polygonal or equiaxed ferrite, Widmanstatten ferrite, quasi-polygonal or massive ferrite, acicular ferrite, and granular ferrite.
{"title":"Ferritic Microstructures","authors":"","doi":"10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410113","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410113","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter describes the ferritic microstructures that form in carbon steels under continuous cooling conditions. It begins with a review of the Dubé classification system for crystal morphologies. It then explains how cooling-rate-induced changes involving carbon atom diffusion and the associated rearrangement of iron atoms produce the wide variety of morphologies and microstructures observed in ferrite. The chapter also describes a classification system developed specifically for ferritic microstructures and uses it to compare common forms of ferrite, including polygonal or equiaxed ferrite, Widmanstatten ferrite, quasi-polygonal or massive ferrite, acicular ferrite, and granular ferrite.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2015-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75215843","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2015-01-01DOI: 10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410277
This chapter describes heat treatments that produce uniform grain structures, reduce residual stresses, and improve ductility and machinability. It also discusses spheroidizing treatments that improve strength and toughness by promoting dispersions of spherical carbides in a ferrite matrix. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on the mechanical properties of ferrite/pearlite microstructures in medium-carbon steels.
{"title":"Normalizing, Annealing, and Spheroidizing Treatments; Ferrite/Pearlite and Spherical Carbides","authors":"","doi":"10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410277","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.spsp2.t54410277","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter describes heat treatments that produce uniform grain structures, reduce residual stresses, and improve ductility and machinability. It also discusses spheroidizing treatments that improve strength and toughness by promoting dispersions of spherical carbides in a ferrite matrix. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on the mechanical properties of ferrite/pearlite microstructures in medium-carbon steels.","PeriodicalId":11535,"journal":{"name":"Electrical Steels - Volume 1: Fundamentals and basic concepts","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2015-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74668134","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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