Pub Date : 2019-07-31DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2019.002
A. Gosar
A review of geological and seismotectonic investigations conducted in the two decades after the 12 April 1998 earthquake in Krn Mountains, according to its magnitude the strongest earthquake in Slovenia in the 20 th century, is given. Many of these studies have wider scientific meaning than expected from the size of the earthquake. This was the first case in Slovenia that a strong earthquake was undoubtedly related to a particular fault. Seismotectonic studies of seismogenic Ravne fault revealed that it is an actively propagating strike-slip fault growing by interaction of individual right stepping fault segments and breaching of local transtensional step-over zones. Airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) of Idrija and Ravne faults, which resulted in high resolution bare earth digital elevation model, was in 2005 for the first time used to study surface expression of an active fault in Europe. Among the primary characteristics of the 1998 earthquake were extensive environmental effects expressed mainly as massive rockfalls. They were systematically documented and evaluated for intensity assessment using European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98) and Environmental Seismic Intensity (ESI) scale introduced in 2007, because application of the data on damage to buildings was limited in sparsely populated high mountains epicentral area. These studies were pioneering due to novelty of both intensity scales, indicating their strong points and weaknesses. Large variations in damage to buildings in the upper Soča valley at similar epicentral distances pointed to strong site effects due to very heterogeneous glacial and fluvial deposits in sedimentary basins and valleys. Therefore, different seismic microzonation maps were prepared to evaluate the influence of soft sediments on seismic ground motion. Conducted studies fostered development of several earthquake geology research methods in Slovenia as tectonic geomorphology, evaluation of environmental seismic effects and seismotectonics. They had positive impact also on the university education in the fields of geophysics, seismology and structural geology.
{"title":"Review of geological and seismotectonic investigations related to 1998 Mw5.6 and 2004 Mw5.2 earthquakes in Krn Mountains","authors":"A. Gosar","doi":"10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2019.002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2019.002","url":null,"abstract":"A review of geological and seismotectonic investigations conducted in the two decades after the 12 April 1998 earthquake in Krn Mountains, according to its magnitude the strongest earthquake in Slovenia in the 20 th century, is given. Many of these studies have wider scientific meaning than expected from the size of the earthquake. This was the first case in Slovenia that a strong earthquake was undoubtedly related to a particular fault. Seismotectonic studies of seismogenic Ravne fault revealed that it is an actively propagating strike-slip fault growing by interaction of individual right stepping fault segments and breaching of local transtensional step-over zones. Airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) of Idrija and Ravne faults, which resulted in high resolution bare earth digital elevation model, was in 2005 for the first time used to study surface expression of an active fault in Europe. Among the primary characteristics of the 1998 earthquake were extensive environmental effects expressed mainly as massive rockfalls. They were systematically documented and evaluated for intensity assessment using European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98) and Environmental Seismic Intensity (ESI) scale introduced in 2007, because application of the data on damage to buildings was limited in sparsely populated high mountains epicentral area. These studies were pioneering due to novelty of both intensity scales, indicating their strong points and weaknesses. Large variations in damage to buildings in the upper Soča valley at similar epicentral distances pointed to strong site effects due to very heterogeneous glacial and fluvial deposits in sedimentary basins and valleys. Therefore, different seismic microzonation maps were prepared to evaluate the influence of soft sediments on seismic ground motion. Conducted studies fostered development of several earthquake geology research methods in Slovenia as tectonic geomorphology, evaluation of environmental seismic effects and seismotectonics. They had positive impact also on the university education in the fields of geophysics, seismology and structural geology.","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47191716","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-03-12DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2019.001
Gosar Mateja, Šajn Robert, Bavec Špela, G. Martin, P. Valentina, Miler Miloš
Geochemical background and threshold values need to be established to identify areas with unusually high concentrations of elements. High concentrations are caused by natural or anthropogenic processes. The <2 mm fraction of 817 collected topsoil (0 – 10 cm) samples at a 5 × 5 km grid on the territory of Slovenia was analysed. Results are used here to establish the geochemical background variation and threshold values, derived statistically from the data set, in order to identify unusually high element concentrations for these elements in the soil samples. Geochemical threshold values were determined following different methods of calculation for (1) whole of Slovenia and (2) for 8 spatial units determined on the base of geological structure, lithology, relief, climate and vegetation. Medians and geochemical thresholds for whole of Slovenia were compared with data for Europe and for southern Europe separately, since large differences in the spatial distribution of many elements are observed between northern and southern Europe. Potentially toxic elements (PTEs), namely As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn, are of particular interest. Medians of these PTE elements are all higher in Slovenia than in southern Europe. Medians of Pb and Mo are 1.5 times higher and medians of Hg and Cd are even more than 2 times higher in Slovenia. Geochemical thresholds for As, Cr, Co, Ni, Sb and Zn are of similar values in both Slovenia and southern Europe and some lower for Cu and Ni. Up to 1.5 times higher are tresholds in Slovenia for Mo and Pb and more than 2.5 times higher for Cd and Hg. These values were then compared to existing Slovenian soil guideline values for these elements.
{"title":"Geochemical background and threshold for 47 chemical elements in Slovenian topsoil","authors":"Gosar Mateja, Šajn Robert, Bavec Špela, G. Martin, P. Valentina, Miler Miloš","doi":"10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2019.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2019.001","url":null,"abstract":"Geochemical background and threshold values need to be established to identify areas with unusually high concentrations of elements. High concentrations are caused by natural or anthropogenic processes. The <2 mm fraction of 817 collected topsoil (0 – 10 cm) samples at a 5 × 5 km grid on the territory of Slovenia was analysed. Results are used here to establish the geochemical background variation and threshold values, derived statistically from the data set, in order to identify unusually high element concentrations for these elements in the soil samples. Geochemical threshold values were determined following different methods of calculation for (1) whole of Slovenia and (2) for 8 spatial units determined on the base of geological structure, lithology, relief, climate and vegetation. Medians and geochemical thresholds for whole of Slovenia were compared with data for Europe and for southern Europe separately, since large differences in the spatial distribution of many elements are observed between northern and southern Europe. Potentially toxic elements (PTEs), namely As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn, are of particular interest. Medians of these PTE elements are all higher in Slovenia than in southern Europe. Medians of Pb and Mo are 1.5 times higher and medians of Hg and Cd are even more than 2 times higher in Slovenia. Geochemical thresholds for As, Cr, Co, Ni, Sb and Zn are of similar values in both Slovenia and southern Europe and some lower for Cu and Ni. Up to 1.5 times higher are tresholds in Slovenia for Mo and Pb and more than 2.5 times higher for Cd and Hg. These values were then compared to existing Slovenian soil guideline values for these elements.","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43730219","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.013
M. Janža, Luka Serianz, Dejan Šram, Matjaž Klasinc
The area above the settlement of Koroška Bela is highly prone to slope mass movements and poses a high risk for the safety of the settlement. To get an insight into the hydrogeological conditions and processes which can affect mass movements in this area, hydrogeological investigations, including hydrogeological mapping, discharge measurements of springs, performance of infiltrometer and slug tests were performed. The results of these investigations show complex and heterogeneous hydrogeological conditions, predisposed by geological and tectonic setting and active mass movements which cannot be uniformly described. Observed large fluctuations in the rate of discharge of springs and groundwater level in observation wells are highly dependent on meteorological conditions. Estimated hydraulic conductivity of the soil is relatively high (2×10-4 m/s) and reflects the loose structure and high content of organic matter in the upper part of the forest soil. Hydraulic conductivity of more permeable sections of boreholes is in general higher in the upper parts, in predominantly gravel layers (in range from 2×10-3 to 1×10-5 m/s), than in the deeper clayey gravel parts (3×10-5 to 1×10-7 m/s). In the area of the Čikla landslide the average hydraulic conductivity is estimated at 8.99×10-4 m/s and is higher than in the area of the Urbas landslide (3.05×10-4 m/s).
{"title":"Hydrogeological investigation of landslides Urbas and Čikla above the settlement of Koroška Bela (NW Slovenia)","authors":"M. Janža, Luka Serianz, Dejan Šram, Matjaž Klasinc","doi":"10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.013","url":null,"abstract":"The area above the settlement of Koroška Bela is highly prone to slope mass movements and poses a high risk for the safety of the settlement. To get an insight into the hydrogeological conditions and processes which can affect mass movements in this area, hydrogeological investigations, including hydrogeological mapping, discharge measurements of springs, performance of infiltrometer and slug tests were performed. The results of these investigations show complex and heterogeneous hydrogeological conditions, predisposed by geological and tectonic setting and active mass movements which cannot be uniformly described. Observed large fluctuations in the rate of discharge of springs and groundwater level in observation wells are highly dependent on meteorological conditions. Estimated hydraulic conductivity of the soil is relatively high (2×10-4 m/s) and reflects the loose structure and high content of organic matter in the upper part of the forest soil. Hydraulic conductivity of more permeable sections of boreholes is in general higher in the upper parts, in predominantly gravel layers (in range from 2×10-3 to 1×10-5 m/s), than in the deeper clayey gravel parts (3×10-5 to 1×10-7 m/s). In the area of the Čikla landslide the average hydraulic conductivity is estimated at 8.99×10-4 m/s and is higher than in the area of the Urbas landslide (3.05×10-4 m/s).","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48494961","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.016
M. Brenčič
{"title":"Correspondence between Vasily Vasilyevich Nikitin and Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky","authors":"M. Brenčič","doi":"10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.016","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42770193","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.012
Tina Peternel, J. Jež, Blaž Milanič, Anže Markelj, M. J. Auflič
This paper focuses on the studying of landslides in the hinterland area of the Koroška Bela settlement, NW Slovenia. Research has shown that these landslides have the potential to mobilize the material into a debris flow. The area of interest is located on the Karavanke mountain ridge, above the settlement of Koroška Bela, which lies on the outskirts of the town of Jesenice. In order to recognize and understand the kinematics of landslides and their triggering mechanisms, a multidisciplinary approach using engineering-geological and geotechnical investigations was applied. Thus, landslide source areas were determined based on engineering-geological mapping. Furthermore, landslide boundaries, types of landslides and sediments that are involved in processes of sliding were mapped in detail. Geotechnical monitoring is beneficial in evaluating rates of movement and failures in the ground under real conditions in the field. Current investigations as well as historical evidence and previous research prove that the hinterland of Koroška Bela is prone to various types of landslides that together form a source area that has the potential to mobilize into larger debris flow.
{"title":"Engineering-geological conditions of landslides above the settlement of Koroška Bela (NW Slovenia)","authors":"Tina Peternel, J. Jež, Blaž Milanič, Anže Markelj, M. J. Auflič","doi":"10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.012","url":null,"abstract":"This paper focuses on the studying of landslides in the hinterland area of the Koroška Bela settlement, NW Slovenia. Research has shown that these landslides have the potential to mobilize the material into a debris flow. The area of interest is located on the Karavanke mountain ridge, above the settlement of Koroška Bela, which lies on the outskirts of the town of Jesenice. In order to recognize and understand the kinematics of landslides and their triggering mechanisms, a multidisciplinary approach using engineering-geological and geotechnical investigations was applied. Thus, landslide source areas were determined based on engineering-geological mapping. Furthermore, landslide boundaries, types of landslides and sediments that are involved in processes of sliding were mapped in detail. Geotechnical monitoring is beneficial in evaluating rates of movement and failures in the ground under real conditions in the field. Current investigations as well as historical evidence and previous research prove that the hinterland of Koroška Bela is prone to various types of landslides that together form a source area that has the potential to mobilize into larger debris flow.","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45645566","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/geologija.2018.017
R. Brajkovič, Mojca Bedjanič, Neža Malenšek Andolšek, Nina Rman, M. Novak, Kaja Šušmelj, P. Ž. Rožič
Teaching of geological contents in elementary school and gymnasiums has not yet been systematically addressed. Under the auspices of Slovenian Geological Society, members of the Task Group for the Popularization of Geology, have set themselves the goal of gaining insight into the teaching of geological contents in elementary schools and gymnasiums. Review also covered general matura examination as it represents the completion of secondary education. In order to provide an overview of the teaching of geological contents, we first reviewed the subject curricula and the knowledge catalog for general matura subjects. We also reviewed valid textbooks and general matura exam questions. The extracted geological contents were classified into six general geological content assemblages. All extracted geological content was evaluated according to Bloom's taxonomy, which, on the basis of structure, enables the recognition of the taxonomic complexity of learning objectives and knowledge tests. We also evaluated cross-curricular relationships. We have discovered that geological contents are taught in elementary school in obligatory subjects such as Society, Natural sciences and engineering, Natural sciences, Geography, Biology and in optional subject Environmental education. In gymnasiums geological contents are taught in the subjects Geography and Biology, where knowledge is also checked at general matura. Learning objectives and contents are mostly appropriately upgraded, but the content presented in textbooks is often insufficient and professionally inadequate. There is also a lack of the important geological topics in the field of formal education. For individual cross-curricular sections, we have made recommendations for promoters of science to contribute to a better understanding and the correct and professional content presentation in public. The presentation of geology in the textbooks is discrete, often professionally flawed, and the content is very limited. This research provies a starting point for starting the placement of updated and appropriate geological contents into formal education.
{"title":"Systematic overview of geological learning objectives and textbook contents for primary schools and gymnasiums","authors":"R. Brajkovič, Mojca Bedjanič, Neža Malenšek Andolšek, Nina Rman, M. Novak, Kaja Šušmelj, P. Ž. Rožič","doi":"10.5474/geologija.2018.017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/geologija.2018.017","url":null,"abstract":"Teaching of geological contents in elementary school and gymnasiums has not yet been systematically addressed. Under the auspices of Slovenian Geological Society, members of the Task Group for the Popularization of Geology, have set themselves the goal of gaining insight into the teaching of geological contents in elementary schools and gymnasiums. Review also covered general matura examination as it represents the completion of secondary education. In order to provide an overview of the teaching of geological contents, we first reviewed the subject curricula and the knowledge catalog for general matura subjects. We also reviewed valid textbooks and general matura exam questions. The extracted geological contents were classified into six general geological content assemblages. All extracted geological content was evaluated according to Bloom's taxonomy, which, on the basis of structure, enables the recognition of the taxonomic complexity of learning objectives and knowledge tests. We also evaluated cross-curricular relationships. We have discovered that geological contents are taught in elementary school in obligatory subjects such as Society, Natural sciences and engineering, Natural sciences, Geography, Biology and in optional subject Environmental education. In gymnasiums geological contents are taught in the subjects Geography and Biology, where knowledge is also checked at general matura. Learning objectives and contents are mostly appropriately upgraded, but the content presented in textbooks is often insufficient and professionally inadequate. There is also a lack of the important geological topics in the field of formal education. For individual cross-curricular sections, we have made recommendations for promoters of science to contribute to a better understanding and the correct and professional content presentation in public. The presentation of geology in the textbooks is discrete, often professionally flawed, and the content is very limited. This research provies a starting point for starting the placement of updated and appropriate geological contents into formal education.","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41826339","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/geologija.2018.014
M. Brenčič
In the paper theoretical derivation of steady state groundwater well pumping from leaky aquifers with infinite and finite radius of influence are presented. Based on the extensive literature review following mainly Jacob and Hantush work equations were derived from the cylindrical Bessel partial differential equation and results expressed in the combination of modified Bessel functions of zero order of the first and the second kind (I0, K0). We have shown that equation for steady state well pumping in the infinite aquifer is infinite limit of Hantush integral. Mathematical characteristics of solutions for infinite and finite radius of well influence were combined in the way that they can be represented as relative and absolute differences of drawdowns of each model. In the case when available data do not allow us to make a decision on the type of the radius of influence of the pumping well, they can help us in the interpretation of various errors due to application of different analytical models of pumping test.
{"title":"Comparison of the fully penetrating well drawdown in leaky aquifers between fiite and infiite radius of inflence under steady-state pumping conditions","authors":"M. Brenčič","doi":"10.5474/geologija.2018.014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/geologija.2018.014","url":null,"abstract":"In the paper theoretical derivation of steady state groundwater well pumping from leaky aquifers with infinite and finite radius of influence are presented. Based on the extensive literature review following mainly Jacob and Hantush work equations were derived from the cylindrical Bessel partial differential equation and results expressed in the combination of modified Bessel functions of zero order of the first and the second kind (I0, K0). We have shown that equation for steady state well pumping in the infinite aquifer is infinite limit of Hantush integral. Mathematical characteristics of solutions for infinite and finite radius of well influence were combined in the way that they can be represented as relative and absolute differences of drawdowns of each model. In the case when available data do not allow us to make a decision on the type of the radius of influence of the pumping well, they can help us in the interpretation of various errors due to application of different analytical models of pumping test.","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44203977","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.018
Kristina Peulič, M. Novak, M. Vrabec
The pavement stone used in the central courtyard of Ljubljana Castle originates from the Kukul area northeast of the town of Prilep in Republic of Macedonia. Several pavers were badly damaged and partly replaced by two other natural stones, because the original stone from Kukul is no longer available on the market. The natural stone that is recently used as a replacement is commercially named “Bianco Sardo” and differs from original rock from Kukul in both, structure and composition. The advancement of the replacement of original pavers with “Bianco Sardo” is resulting in extremely uneven and disturbing appearance of the courtyard. The original Kukul stone used in the central courtyard of Ljubljana Castle is of metamorphic origin and belongs to gneisses. Two types of pavers were identified, the light coloured and the dark coloured varieties. They have similar mineral composition consisting of quartz, feldspars (orthoclase, microcline and plagioclases), minerals of the epidote group, micas (muscovite and biotite), titanite, zircon, clinopyroxene, kyanite, pyrite and calcite. Light coloured pavers have porphyroclastic, protomylonitic to mylonitic structures. Dark coloured pavers display gneissic structure, contain more quartz and epidote, less feldspars, and no clinopyroxene. They show intensive recrystallization and granoblastic textures. Both analysed rock types belong to the same rock massif, only that the blocks were extracted from various parts of the rock massif. The variations are due to the process of metamorphic differentiation, which resulted in segregation and separation of light and dark coloured minerals. In the past, the natural stone that was coming from Kukul, was known and classifyed as a type of granite. The rock that is used in the central courtyard of Ljubljana Castle is not granite but granitic gneiss, therefore, we assume that in the last stages of quarrying in the Prilep area, they were extracting also the metamorphic country rocks for some time. The broader area of Prilep belongs to the Pelagonian massif. Its thick metamorphic complex contains also granitoid (granodiorite) intrusives, which crop out in the Prilep anticline and used to be quarried at the locality of Kukul. According to national regulations of the Republic of Macedonia the area is now protected as a natural monument and further exploitation was no longer possible. Today, there is only one open granite exploitation field in the wider surroundings of Prilep, the locality of Lozjanska Reka–Kruševica and a few localities of gneiss-granites of high potential. It would be necessary to consider these solutions for the conservation-restoration of the Ljubljana Castle central courtyard instead of using an inappropriate stone replacement.
{"title":"Provenance and characteristics of the pavement stone from the courtyard of the Ljubljana Castle","authors":"Kristina Peulič, M. Novak, M. Vrabec","doi":"10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.018","url":null,"abstract":"The pavement stone used in the central courtyard of Ljubljana Castle originates from the Kukul area northeast of the town of Prilep in Republic of Macedonia. Several pavers were badly damaged and partly replaced by two other natural stones, because the original stone from Kukul is no longer available on the market. The natural stone that is recently used as a replacement is commercially named “Bianco Sardo” and differs from original rock from Kukul in both, structure and composition. The advancement of the replacement of original pavers with “Bianco Sardo” is resulting in extremely uneven and disturbing appearance of the courtyard. The original Kukul stone used in the central courtyard of Ljubljana Castle is of metamorphic origin and belongs to gneisses. Two types of pavers were identified, the light coloured and the dark coloured varieties. They have similar mineral composition consisting of quartz, feldspars (orthoclase, microcline and plagioclases), minerals of the epidote group, micas (muscovite and biotite), titanite, zircon, clinopyroxene, kyanite, pyrite and calcite. Light coloured pavers have porphyroclastic, protomylonitic to mylonitic structures. Dark coloured pavers display gneissic structure, contain more quartz and epidote, less feldspars, and no clinopyroxene. They show intensive recrystallization and granoblastic textures. Both analysed rock types belong to the same rock massif, only that the blocks were extracted from various parts of the rock massif. The variations are due to the process of metamorphic differentiation, which resulted in segregation and separation of light and dark coloured minerals. In the past, the natural stone that was coming from Kukul, was known and classifyed as a type of granite. The rock that is used in the central courtyard of Ljubljana Castle is not granite but granitic gneiss, therefore, we assume that in the last stages of quarrying in the Prilep area, they were extracting also the metamorphic country rocks for some time. The broader area of Prilep belongs to the Pelagonian massif. Its thick metamorphic complex contains also granitoid (granodiorite) intrusives, which crop out in the Prilep anticline and used to be quarried at the locality of Kukul. According to national regulations of the Republic of Macedonia the area is now protected as a natural monument and further exploitation was no longer possible. Today, there is only one open granite exploitation field in the wider surroundings of Prilep, the locality of Lozjanska Reka–Kruševica and a few localities of gneiss-granites of high potential. It would be necessary to consider these solutions for the conservation-restoration of the Ljubljana Castle central courtyard instead of using an inappropriate stone replacement.","PeriodicalId":12743,"journal":{"name":"Geologija","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46686497","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-12-21DOI: 10.5474/GEOLOGIJA.2018.011
Jernej Kerčmar
Three conditions are required for the existence of hydrocarbon reservoirs: source rock (usually basement or footwall), collector (porous rock in which the hydrocarbons are caught), and upper impermeable rock (hanging wall). In addition to a geological structure, temperature, pressure and time are needed for the organic matter to pass through the diagenesis phase into hydrocarbons, as we know them today. Every hydrocarbon deposit found and having economical reserves for production passes five stages of the life cycle of the reservoir. First, geological, geophysical, petrophysical and reservoir exploration is carried out, and then results of these explorations are evaluated by 2D and 3D geological models. Next stage is evaluation of entire field potential (in-place) and proved reserves of all hydrocarbons-bearing reservoir strata (reservoirs). Afterwards, the most important stage is production and the end phase with the remediation of the field. In Slovenia, most of the natural gas was produced from the “Petišovci globoko” reservoirs in the years between 1963 and 2017,
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