Junya Hangai, T. Yoshitomi, S. Homma-Takeda, M. Oikawa, T. Ishikawa, H. Iso, H. Imaseki
Morphological alterations of the gill lamellae caused by heavy metal exposure are well known. However, the metal profiles in the gill lamellae have poorly understood. In this study, we attempted to determine the precise distribution of copper in the gill lamellae of the Carassius auratus langsdorfii exposed to copper chloride by microbeam scanning particle induced X-ray emission （ micro-PIXE ） analysis. Essential trace elements, such as iron and zinc in the gill lamellae were also determined and their distribution was compared with that of copper. Exposure of the fishes to copper chloride resulted in a marked alter-ation in the gill lamellae; the gill filaments on the gill lamellae were clubbing. Micro-PIXE analysis revealed a site-specific distribution of copper corresponding to the alterations. Copper was found to be high in the periphery of the gill lamellae, and low in the blood ves-sel and the tissues surrounding the blood vessel. The profiles of copper and the essential trace elements were complementary distribution.
{"title":"Distribution of trace elements in the fish gill lamellae corresponded to the structure by micro-PIXE analysis using Carassius auratus langsdorfii exposed to copper chloride","authors":"Junya Hangai, T. Yoshitomi, S. Homma-Takeda, M. Oikawa, T. Ishikawa, H. Iso, H. Imaseki","doi":"10.11403/JSET.13.69","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.13.69","url":null,"abstract":"Morphological alterations of the gill lamellae caused by heavy metal exposure are well known. However, the metal profiles in the gill lamellae have poorly understood. In this study, we attempted to determine the precise distribution of copper in the gill lamellae of the Carassius auratus langsdorfii exposed to copper chloride by microbeam scanning particle induced X-ray emission （ micro-PIXE ） analysis. Essential trace elements, such as iron and zinc in the gill lamellae were also determined and their distribution was compared with that of copper. Exposure of the fishes to copper chloride resulted in a marked alter-ation in the gill lamellae; the gill filaments on the gill lamellae were clubbing. Micro-PIXE analysis revealed a site-specific distribution of copper corresponding to the alterations. Copper was found to be high in the periphery of the gill lamellae, and low in the blood ves-sel and the tissues surrounding the blood vessel. The profiles of copper and the essential trace elements were complementary distribution.","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77588815","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Challenge of obsolete chemicals management: Its causes, public health and environmental impacts in developing countries (Ethiopia)","authors":"A. Abebe, S. Haq","doi":"10.11403/JSET.13.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.13.1","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87852438","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Water quality guidelines have been derived to protect aquatic ecosystems in the regulatory framework of many countries. Direct toxicity assessment(DTA)or whole effluent toxicity(WET)testing has been conducted to estimate the toxicity of complex mixture such as industrial effluents using various bioassays. Most countries adopted acute and/or chronic fish toxicity tests in their regulations. For acute toxicity testing, juvenile or adult fish are normally used, whereas the fish embryo toxicity(FET)test is suggested as the alternative to the acute fish tests in Germany. Although Japanese Ministry of the Environment recently started investigation to introduce the WET system for regulatory purpose, bioassays to be employed are not yet decided. In this paper, sensitivities and practical aspects of fish toxicity tests(FET test and OECD Guidelines 203 and 212)were compared for two fish species, zebrafish(Danio rerio)and Japanese medaka(Oryzias latipes).Results indicate that O. latipes acute toxicity test was the most appropriate method in practical aspects of regulations. The effect of water hardness on Cu toxicity suggested that the water hardness of effluents should be considered to verify toxicity data and to minimize potential toxicity after dilution of effluents.
{"title":"Comparison and validation of fish bioassays for effluent toxicity testing.","authors":"T. Nishida, Katsuyuki Kadota, A. Nakamura","doi":"10.11403/JSET.13.27","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.13.27","url":null,"abstract":"Water quality guidelines have been derived to protect aquatic ecosystems in the regulatory framework of many countries. Direct toxicity assessment(DTA)or whole effluent toxicity(WET)testing has been conducted to estimate the toxicity of complex mixture such as industrial effluents using various bioassays. Most countries adopted acute and/or chronic fish toxicity tests in their regulations. For acute toxicity testing, juvenile or adult fish are normally used, whereas the fish embryo toxicity(FET)test is suggested as the alternative to the acute fish tests in Germany. Although Japanese Ministry of the Environment recently started investigation to introduce the WET system for regulatory purpose, bioassays to be employed are not yet decided. In this paper, sensitivities and practical aspects of fish toxicity tests(FET test and OECD Guidelines 203 and 212)were compared for two fish species, zebrafish(Danio rerio)and Japanese medaka(Oryzias latipes).Results indicate that O. latipes acute toxicity test was the most appropriate method in practical aspects of regulations. The effect of water hardness on Cu toxicity suggested that the water hardness of effluents should be considered to verify toxicity data and to minimize potential toxicity after dilution of effluents.","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2010-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74570309","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Two marine fishes, Japanese sea bass and red sea bream, were exposed to dietary tributyl tin(TBT)for two weeks to examine its immunotoxicity in relation to their body burdens. TBT body burdens of test fishes were also compared to TBT body burdens of their wild and cultured counterparts to predict their immune function inhibition. TBT concentrations of both fishes were significantly increased when dietary TBT concentrations were increased. While one of the non-specific immune responses, phagocytosis by neutrophil was not inhibited by TBT, another response, NBT reduction as a measure of oxidative burst of both fish species was inhibited even in the lowest dietary TBT concentration. Reverse sigmoid curve relationships were observed between inhibition of oxidative burst and TBT body burden in both fish species. TBT concentrations of some wild sea bass and cultured red sea bream were higher than the observed TBT concentrations of the lowest concentration exposure group of the present study. These results suggest that non-specific immune response of wild sea bass and cultured red sea bream can be inhibited by TBT contamination.
{"title":"Immunotoxicity of tributyl tin to Japanese sea bass, Lateolabrax japonicus and red sea bream, Pagrus major, in relation to their body burden","authors":"J. Koyama, Masayo Murakami, S. Uno","doi":"10.11403/JSET.12.123","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.12.123","url":null,"abstract":"Two marine fishes, Japanese sea bass and red sea bream, were exposed to dietary tributyl tin(TBT)for two weeks to examine its immunotoxicity in relation to their body burdens. TBT body burdens of test fishes were also compared to TBT body burdens of their wild and cultured counterparts to predict their immune function inhibition. TBT concentrations of both fishes were significantly increased when dietary TBT concentrations were increased. While one of the non-specific immune responses, phagocytosis by neutrophil was not inhibited by TBT, another response, NBT reduction as a measure of oxidative burst of both fish species was inhibited even in the lowest dietary TBT concentration. Reverse sigmoid curve relationships were observed between inhibition of oxidative burst and TBT body burden in both fish species. TBT concentrations of some wild sea bass and cultured red sea bream were higher than the observed TBT concentrations of the lowest concentration exposure group of the present study. These results suggest that non-specific immune response of wild sea bass and cultured red sea bream can be inhibited by TBT contamination.","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-12-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86880013","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
1.はじめに ナノマテリアルとは,基本的には物体の大き さを表す外寸(タテ・ヨコ・高さ)のうち少な くともひとつの大きさが100nm(ナノ・メート ル,1億分の1メートル)以下であり,電気 的・物理化学的あるいは生物・医学的な性質を 持つように合成された固体・コロイド・イオン などの化合物を指す。ナノマテリアルは多く の分野の化学製品を進歩させると期待されてお り,既に多くの製品が世に出されている。1993 年に single-walled carbon nanotubes(SWNTs, 単層カーボンナノチューブ)が発見されて以来, ナノテクノロジー産業はカーボンナノチューブ を含む新規化合物あるいはナノサイズに加工し ABSTRACT Emerging nanotechnology has received great attention in recent years because of its widescale use in consumer products, healthcare, and medical applications, among others. Due to such rapid growth of nanomaterial manufacturing and use, these materials will inevitably be released into the environment. Currently little information exists on the fate and toxicological effects of nanoparticles in the environment including aquatic matrices. In this review, we discuss 1)possible ecological risks of silver nanomaterials as unbiodegradable and bioaccumulative contaminants, 2)environmental application of nanomaterials, 3) biological effects of nanomaterials to aquatic invertebrates and fishes, including biological fate and their indirect effects, 4)problems on nano-toxicity research, 5)regulatory science, and 6) nano-science and ecological risk. Here we highlight the need for further researches in order to understand the potential environmental/ecological hazard and risk of nanomaterials, with scientifically validated and environmentally relevant testing methods.
1.首先，纳米材料基本上表示物体大小的外寸(长、宽、高)中至少一个大小在100nm(纳米，1亿分之1米)以下，电指合成的具有性、物理化学或生物、医学性质的固体、胶体、离子等化合物。纳米材料有望推动多个领域的化学产品发展，目前已有不少产品问世。自1993年发现single-walled carbon nanotubes(SWNTs，单层碳纳米管)以来，纳米技术产业是新型化合物，包括碳纳米管，或者加工成纳米尺寸，ABSTRACT Emerging nanotechnology has received greatattention in recent years because of its widescale use in consumer products, healthcare，医学应用，among others. Due to such rapid growth of nanomaterial manufacturing and use，these materials will inevitably be released into the environment. Currently little informationfate and toxicological effects of nanoparticles in the环境including aquaticmatrices. In this review，we discuss 1)possible ecological risks of silver nanomaterials as unbiodegradable andbioaccumulative contaminants, 2) nanomaterials environmental application，3)生物effects of nanomaterials to aquatic invertebrates and fishes，including biological fate and their indirect effects, 4)problems on nano-toxicity research，5) regulatory science,and 6) nano-science and ecological risk. Here we highlight the need for further researches in orderto understand the potential环境/ecological hazard and risk of nanomaterials，with scientifically validated and environmentally relevant testing methods。
{"title":"Emerging Aquatic Contamination of Nanomaterials and its Ecological Risk","authors":"S. Kashiwada","doi":"10.11403/JSET.12.19","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.12.19","url":null,"abstract":"1.はじめに ナノマテリアルとは,基本的には物体の大き さを表す外寸(タテ・ヨコ・高さ)のうち少な くともひとつの大きさが100nm(ナノ・メート ル,1億分の1メートル)以下であり,電気 的・物理化学的あるいは生物・医学的な性質を 持つように合成された固体・コロイド・イオン などの化合物を指す。ナノマテリアルは多く の分野の化学製品を進歩させると期待されてお り,既に多くの製品が世に出されている。1993 年に single-walled carbon nanotubes(SWNTs, 単層カーボンナノチューブ)が発見されて以来, ナノテクノロジー産業はカーボンナノチューブ を含む新規化合物あるいはナノサイズに加工し ABSTRACT Emerging nanotechnology has received great attention in recent years because of its widescale use in consumer products, healthcare, and medical applications, among others. Due to such rapid growth of nanomaterial manufacturing and use, these materials will inevitably be released into the environment. Currently little information exists on the fate and toxicological effects of nanoparticles in the environment including aquatic matrices. In this review, we discuss 1)possible ecological risks of silver nanomaterials as unbiodegradable and bioaccumulative contaminants, 2)environmental application of nanomaterials, 3) biological effects of nanomaterials to aquatic invertebrates and fishes, including biological fate and their indirect effects, 4)problems on nano-toxicity research, 5)regulatory science, and 6) nano-science and ecological risk. Here we highlight the need for further researches in order to understand the potential environmental/ecological hazard and risk of nanomaterials, with scientifically validated and environmentally relevant testing methods.","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87229139","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Micronuclei and other Nuclear Abnormalities Formation in the Red Sea Bream, Pagrus major, Exposed to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons","authors":"J. Cheikyula, J. Koyama, S. Uno","doi":"10.11403/JSET.12.33","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.12.33","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73335015","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Akari Jagawa, Y. Sugaya, K. Goka, T. Sabo-Attwood, G. Chandler, S. Kashiwada
To monitor monthly water quality in two Japanese rivers, we measured in situ hepatic and gill CYP1A activity in living see-through medaka by a method we had developed previously. The Sakura River is seasonally polluted by pesticides, and the Sakai River receives treated wastewaters from a waste disposal landfill site. Following exposure of the medaka for 24 h to water samples we determined hepatic and gill CYP1A activity by fluorescence microscopy. Exposure to river waters from both sites induced CYP1A activity in the liver and gills. This study confirms the practical usefulness of this method for monitoring environmental water quality.
{"title":"Application of an In Situ Hepatic and Gill CYP1A Activity Assay to River Water Quality Monitoring Using the See-through Medaka, Oryzias latipes","authors":"Akari Jagawa, Y. Sugaya, K. Goka, T. Sabo-Attwood, G. Chandler, S. Kashiwada","doi":"10.11403/JSET.12.55","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.12.55","url":null,"abstract":"To monitor monthly water quality in two Japanese rivers, we measured in situ hepatic and gill CYP1A activity in living see-through medaka by a method we had developed previously. The Sakura River is seasonally polluted by pesticides, and the Sakai River receives treated wastewaters from a waste disposal landfill site. Following exposure of the medaka for 24 h to water samples we determined hepatic and gill CYP1A activity by fluorescence microscopy. Exposure to river waters from both sites induced CYP1A activity in the liver and gills. This study confirms the practical usefulness of this method for monitoring environmental water quality.","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77934798","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Effects of Chemicals and Metal Ions on Microcosms: Comparison of Community Metabolism to Single-Species Responses to Toxicants","authors":"K. Sugiura","doi":"10.11403/JSET.12.41","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.12.41","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90736542","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
1.はじめに 1974年にローランドとモリーナが、成層圏に 達したフロンが紫外線によって分解されて発生 した塩素によるオゾン層破壊の可能性を指摘し た(Molina and Rowland, 1974.)。1985年にはウ ィーン条約が締結され、1987年には「モントリ オール議定書」が採択され、ヒトの健康及び環 境保護のために、冷媒として使用されている特 定フロン[Chlorofluorocarbon(CFC)の5物質] を1996年末までに全廃することとされた。特定 フロンに代わって、「塩素を含まないこと、含 んでいても分子内に水素を有し、成層圏に達す る前に消滅しやすいこと」、「地球温暖化への影 響が少ないこと」及び「毒性がないこと」を条 ABSTRACT The present paper summarizes the data available in the literature concerning toxicity of the degradation products of 1,1,1,2-tetrahydrofluoroethane(HFC-134a),which is widely used worldwide as a refrigerant, and 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene(HFO-1234yf),which is developed as a refrigerant for new generation. There are many studies available for toxic effects of carbon dioxide(CO2)and carbon monoxide(CO)in humans and animals. General toxicity of excessive CO2 exposure in humans is well reported. However, information on reproductive and developmental toxicity of CO2 in humans and animals is inadequate for risk assessment. As for CO, further studies are required to evaluate the adverse effects of chronic exposure to low and near ambient levels of CO on development of fetuses and newborn infants in marginal condition because of high susceptibility to hypoxic effect in fetuses and newborn infants. There is a lack of information on toxicity of trifluoroacetic acid, carbonyl fluoride, hydrogen fluoride, and formic acid in humans and animals. Animal studies remain necessary for risk assessment of chemicals because it is difficult to find alternative methods to determine the toxic effect of chemicals.
1.前言罗兰和莫利纳在1974年指出，到达平流层的氟利龙被紫外线分解而产生的氯可能会破坏臭氧层(Molina and Rowland，1974 .)。1985年签订了《乌恩条约》，1987年通过了《蒙特利奥尔议定书》，为了人类健康和环境保护，作为制冷剂使用。定氟利昂[Chlorofluorocarbon(CFC)的5种物质]将在1996年底之前全部废除。代替特定氟利龙，“不含氯，即使含氯，分子内也有氢，在到达平流层之前容易消失”，“对全球变暖的影响小”以及“无毒”条ABSTRACTpresent paper summarizes The data available in The literature concerning toxicity of Thedegradation products of 1,1,1,2-tetrahydrofluoroethane(HFC-134a)，which is widely used worldwide as arefrigerant,and 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene(HFO-1234yf)，which is developed as a refrigerant for new generation.There are many studies available for toxic effects of carbon dioxide(CO2)and carbon monoxide(CO)inhumans and animals. General toxicity of excessive co exposure in humans is well reported. However，information on reproductive and developmental toxicity of CO2 in humans and animals is inadequaterisk assessment. As for CO，further studies are required to evaluate the adverse effects of chronic exposure to low and nearambient levels of CO on development of fetuses and newborn infants in marginal condition because ofhigh susceptibility to hypoxic effect in fetuses and newborn infants. There is alack of informationtrifluoroacetic acid, carbonyl fluoride, hydrogen fluoride，人类与动物研究(Animal studies remain necessary for risk assessment)化学because it is difficult to find alternative methods to determine the toxic effect ofchemicals。
{"title":"Toxicity evaluation of degradation products of refrigerants","authors":"M. Ema, M. Naya, Kikuo Yoshida, R. Nagaosa","doi":"10.11403/JSET.12.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.11403/JSET.12.1","url":null,"abstract":"1.はじめに 1974年にローランドとモリーナが、成層圏に 達したフロンが紫外線によって分解されて発生 した塩素によるオゾン層破壊の可能性を指摘し た(Molina and Rowland, 1974.)。1985年にはウ ィーン条約が締結され、1987年には「モントリ オール議定書」が採択され、ヒトの健康及び環 境保護のために、冷媒として使用されている特 定フロン[Chlorofluorocarbon(CFC)の5物質] を1996年末までに全廃することとされた。特定 フロンに代わって、「塩素を含まないこと、含 んでいても分子内に水素を有し、成層圏に達す る前に消滅しやすいこと」、「地球温暖化への影 響が少ないこと」及び「毒性がないこと」を条 ABSTRACT The present paper summarizes the data available in the literature concerning toxicity of the degradation products of 1,1,1,2-tetrahydrofluoroethane(HFC-134a),which is widely used worldwide as a refrigerant, and 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene(HFO-1234yf),which is developed as a refrigerant for new generation. There are many studies available for toxic effects of carbon dioxide(CO2)and carbon monoxide(CO)in humans and animals. General toxicity of excessive CO2 exposure in humans is well reported. However, information on reproductive and developmental toxicity of CO2 in humans and animals is inadequate for risk assessment. As for CO, further studies are required to evaluate the adverse effects of chronic exposure to low and near ambient levels of CO on development of fetuses and newborn infants in marginal condition because of high susceptibility to hypoxic effect in fetuses and newborn infants. There is a lack of information on toxicity of trifluoroacetic acid, carbonyl fluoride, hydrogen fluoride, and formic acid in humans and animals. Animal studies remain necessary for risk assessment of chemicals because it is difficult to find alternative methods to determine the toxic effect of chemicals.","PeriodicalId":14585,"journal":{"name":"Japanese journal of environmental toxicology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72761750","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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