Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX115
J. Tickner
The present chapter provides an overview for the improvements in chemical information, assessment, and management and emphasizes the need of comprehensive chemicals policy that leads to more sustainable chemicals, materials, and products. For many years, there has been widespread public concern about human exposure to toxic substances and the lack of information on how chemicals are used and how these exposures might affect health. It has been realized that the amount of exposure is not the only factor that produces risks but also the timing of the dose, particularly during critical windows of developmental vulnerability. During the past two decades, governments, companies, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have identified significant limitations in existing structures for chemicals assessment and management. Many large users and producers of chemicals are now interested in developing sustainability policies that call for safer chemicals and products. The field of green chemistry and prevention through design (PtD) are contributing significantly in developing more sustainable chemicals management policies. There is a need for new chemical assessment and evaluation approaches that advance the development and adoption of safer alternatives and that do not shift risks to workers. Keywords: bisphenol A; dioxins; furans; green chemistry; persistent organic pollutants; Toxic Substances Control Act
{"title":"From Reactive Chemicals Control to Comprehensive Chemicals Policy: An Evolution and Opportunity","authors":"J. Tickner","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX115","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX115","url":null,"abstract":"The present chapter provides an overview for the improvements in chemical information, assessment, and management and emphasizes the need of comprehensive chemicals policy that leads to more sustainable chemicals, materials, and products. For many years, there has been widespread public concern about human exposure to toxic substances and the lack of information on how chemicals are used and how these exposures might affect health. It has been realized that the amount of exposure is not the only factor that produces risks but also the timing of the dose, particularly during critical windows of developmental vulnerability. During the past two decades, governments, companies, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have identified significant limitations in existing structures for chemicals assessment and management. Many large users and producers of chemicals are now interested in developing sustainability policies that call for safer chemicals and products. The field of green chemistry and prevention through design (PtD) are contributing significantly in developing more sustainable chemicals management policies. There is a need for new chemical assessment and evaluation approaches that advance the development and adoption of safer alternatives and that do not shift risks to workers. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000bisphenol A; \u0000dioxins; \u0000furans; \u0000green chemistry; \u0000persistent organic pollutants; \u0000Toxic Substances Control Act","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75861671","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX061.PUB2
E. Kopras
Cyanides are among the most acutely toxic of all industrial chemicals and are produced in large quantities and used in many different applications. However, they cause few serious accidents or deaths. This is partly because the word cyanide is synonymous with a highly poisonous substance and a certain amount of care in handling is thereby ensured. The cyanides and nitriles are a disparate group of substances characterized by the presence of a cyanide (CN) group in their molecular structure. The cyanide group consists of a carbon bonded to a nitrogen. In those cases where the cyanide group is readily available, toxicity is likely to have similarity to hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The chemical and physical characteristics of the compound will affect the potential availability of the cyanide group and therefore, the hazards associated with different chemical species. For purposes of the toxicologist, cyanides and nitriles can be classified into groups based on their common properties. Group 1, inorganic cyanides, includes hydrogen cyanide, cyanogen, and simple salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonium cyanide of hydrogen cyanide that dissociate readily to release CN−1 ions. Group 2 includes halogenated compounds such as cyanogen chloride or bromide. Group 3 comprises simple and complex salts such as cobalt cyanide trihydrate, cupric and cuprous cyanide, silver cyanide, and ferricyanide and ferrocyanide salts of hydrogen cyanide that do not dissociate readily to release CN−1 ions. Group 4, organic cyanides, includes cyanide glycosides produced by plants such as amygdalin and linamarin. Group 5, nitriles, have a general structure R-CNO, and include compounds such as acetonitrile (methyl cyanide), acrylonitrile, and isobutyronitrile. Keywords: Bhopal; cyanides; India; methylisocyanate release; nitriles
{"title":"Cyanides and Nitriles","authors":"E. Kopras","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX061.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX061.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Cyanides are among the most acutely toxic of all industrial chemicals and are produced in large quantities and used in many different applications. However, they cause few serious accidents or deaths. This is partly because the word cyanide is synonymous with a highly poisonous substance and a certain amount of care in handling is thereby ensured. The cyanides and nitriles are a disparate group of substances characterized by the presence of a cyanide (CN) group in their molecular structure. The cyanide group consists of a carbon bonded to a nitrogen. In those cases where the cyanide group is readily available, toxicity is likely to have similarity to hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The chemical and physical characteristics of the compound will affect the potential availability of the cyanide group and therefore, the hazards associated with different chemical species. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000For purposes of the toxicologist, cyanides and nitriles can be classified into groups based on their common properties. Group 1, inorganic cyanides, includes hydrogen cyanide, cyanogen, and simple salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonium cyanide of hydrogen cyanide that dissociate readily to release CN−1 ions. Group 2 includes halogenated compounds such as cyanogen chloride or bromide. Group 3 comprises simple and complex salts such as cobalt cyanide trihydrate, cupric and cuprous cyanide, silver cyanide, and ferricyanide and ferrocyanide salts of hydrogen cyanide that do not dissociate readily to release CN−1 ions. Group 4, organic cyanides, includes cyanide glycosides produced by plants such as amygdalin and linamarin. Group 5, nitriles, have a general structure R-CNO, and include compounds such as acetonitrile (methyl cyanide), acrylonitrile, and isobutyronitrile. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Bhopal; \u0000cyanides; \u0000India; \u0000methylisocyanate release; \u0000nitriles","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"55 1","pages":"1-52"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79882278","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX068.PUB2
G. Rusch
The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were introduced in the 1930s as “safe” replacements for refrigerants such as sulfur dioxide, ammonia, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. In World War II, they were used to produce insecticide aerosols to protect the troops in tropical areas against malaria and other insectborne diseases. During the next 40–50 years, the number and type of applications expanded to include foam blowing, precision cleaning, and propellants for medicinal, cosmetic, and general-purpose aerosols, air conditioning, and refrigeration. These uses eventually resulted in emission of the CFCs into the atmosphere. Because of their low chemical reactivity, they typically have long atmospheric residence times, and as a consequence, they are distributed globally. In 1974 Molina and Rowland hypothesized that, once the CFCs reach the stratosphere, they will undergo breakdown to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms could then react with the stratospheric ozone breaking it down into oxygen. Since the stratospheric ozone absorbed much of the sun's ultraviolet β radiation (UVB), decreased ozone levels would lead to increases in ground-level UVB. This could affect crop growth and lead to increases in cataracts and nonmelanoma skin cancers. Following reports of a marked drop in column ozone over Antarctica (the “ozone hole”) during the Antarctic winter, in 1987 most of the nations of the world drafted and signed an agreement calling for the phaseout of CFCs. This agreement is known as the Montreal Protocol. Development was initiated on two types of “in-kind” replacements. The first were the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and the second were the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Both contain hydrogen and are susceptible to attack by hydroxyl radicals present in the atmosphere. Therefore, they have a shorter atmospheric lifetime and either are not transported to the stratosphere or are transported there only in small amounts. The HCFCs contain chlorine and are still capable of causing ozone depletion, although, since their atmospheric lifetimes are short, their ozone-depleting potential (ODP) is lower than those associated with the CFCs. The HFCs do not contain chlorine (or bromine, also associated with ozone depletion). They, therefore, do not cause ozone depletion. A ranking scale has been developed using CFC11 as the reference compound, with an assigned value of 1. These values are also presented. A second concern, regarding both CFCs and their replacements, is that they are greenhouse warming gases. They, along with other substances such as carbon dioxide, trap the sun's infrared radiation and convert it to heat. However, they are also good insulating materials, and frequently their use as foam blowing agents in refrigeration equipment can lead to considerable energy savings, reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The greenhouse warming potentials (GWPs) for many of the CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are given. Many methods have been d
{"title":"Organic Chlorofluoro Hydrocarbons","authors":"G. Rusch","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX068.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX068.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were introduced in the 1930s as “safe” replacements for refrigerants such as sulfur dioxide, ammonia, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. In World War II, they were used to produce insecticide aerosols to protect the troops in tropical areas against malaria and other insectborne diseases. During the next 40–50 years, the number and type of applications expanded to include foam blowing, precision cleaning, and propellants for medicinal, cosmetic, and general-purpose aerosols, air conditioning, and refrigeration. These uses eventually resulted in emission of the CFCs into the atmosphere. Because of their low chemical reactivity, they typically have long atmospheric residence times, and as a consequence, they are distributed globally. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000In 1974 Molina and Rowland hypothesized that, once the CFCs reach the stratosphere, they will undergo breakdown to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms could then react with the stratospheric ozone breaking it down into oxygen. Since the stratospheric ozone absorbed much of the sun's ultraviolet β radiation (UVB), decreased ozone levels would lead to increases in ground-level UVB. This could affect crop growth and lead to increases in cataracts and nonmelanoma skin cancers. Following reports of a marked drop in column ozone over Antarctica (the “ozone hole”) during the Antarctic winter, in 1987 most of the nations of the world drafted and signed an agreement calling for the phaseout of CFCs. This agreement is known as the Montreal Protocol. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Development was initiated on two types of “in-kind” replacements. The first were the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and the second were the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Both contain hydrogen and are susceptible to attack by hydroxyl radicals present in the atmosphere. Therefore, they have a shorter atmospheric lifetime and either are not transported to the stratosphere or are transported there only in small amounts. The HCFCs contain chlorine and are still capable of causing ozone depletion, although, since their atmospheric lifetimes are short, their ozone-depleting potential (ODP) is lower than those associated with the CFCs. The HFCs do not contain chlorine (or bromine, also associated with ozone depletion). They, therefore, do not cause ozone depletion. A ranking scale has been developed using CFC11 as the reference compound, with an assigned value of 1. These values are also presented. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000A second concern, regarding both CFCs and their replacements, is that they are greenhouse warming gases. They, along with other substances such as carbon dioxide, trap the sun's infrared radiation and convert it to heat. However, they are also good insulating materials, and frequently their use as foam blowing agents in refrigeration equipment can lead to considerable energy savings, reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The greenhouse warming potentials (GWPs) for many of the CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are given. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Many methods have been d","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"1 1","pages":"359-427"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90167077","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX105.PUB2
H. Mason
Pneumatic tools and rotating tools, such as grinders have been recorded as being used in many countries. Poorly maintained tools are well-established causes of significantly increased transmission of vibrational energy into the hands of workers causing episodic finger blanching, symptoms of numbness and tingling and neurosensory deficit in the hands, and loss of grip strength. Collectively these health problems are termed HAVS and can become significantly disabling in severer cases. The term HAVS began to have widespread coinage as describing the range of vascular, neurosensory, and musculoskeletal problems associated with excessive exposure to HTV. There have been a number of reports that address the possible pathophysiological basis of the elements of HAVS. However, the exact relationship between the dose and either the vascular or neurosensory elements of HAVS has remained unclear as to how much the nature of the exposure data, often relying on retrospective exposure assessment, or the extent of individual susceptibility adds to the uncertainty or noise in any reported relationships. There has been considerable international effort to reduce exposures, especially through better ergonomically designed tools with lower vibration emissions. Keywords: carpal tunnel syndrome; hand-arm vibration syndrome; Purdue pegboard test; Raynaud's phenomenon; vibration white finger; whole body vibration
{"title":"Health Effects from Hand‐Transmitted Vibration","authors":"H. Mason","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX105.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX105.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Pneumatic tools and rotating tools, such as grinders have been recorded as being used in many countries. Poorly maintained tools are well-established causes of significantly increased transmission of vibrational energy into the hands of workers causing episodic finger blanching, symptoms of numbness and tingling and neurosensory deficit in the hands, and loss of grip strength. Collectively these health problems are termed HAVS and can become significantly disabling in severer cases. The term HAVS began to have widespread coinage as describing the range of vascular, neurosensory, and musculoskeletal problems associated with excessive exposure to HTV. There have been a number of reports that address the possible pathophysiological basis of the elements of HAVS. However, the exact relationship between the dose and either the vascular or neurosensory elements of HAVS has remained unclear as to how much the nature of the exposure data, often relying on retrospective exposure assessment, or the extent of individual susceptibility adds to the uncertainty or noise in any reported relationships. There has been considerable international effort to reduce exposures, especially through better ergonomically designed tools with lower vibration emissions. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000carpal tunnel syndrome; \u0000hand-arm vibration syndrome; \u0000Purdue pegboard test; \u0000Raynaud's phenomenon; \u0000vibration white finger; \u0000whole body vibration","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"47 1","pages":"269-280"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86032790","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX117
F. Mirer
The present chapter summarizes metalworking fluid (MWF). MWF is the term also used for fluids used in various processes and operation for the manufacture of engines, transmissions, and chassis parts. There are two general categories and four major types of MWF. The characteristics and composition of fluids, as well as technological details of application have been reviewed. The experimental evidence suggests that several agents known to be present in MWF have been classified as carcinogenic. Studies also identified the associations of both straight oil and water-reduced MWF with several respiratory diseases. NIOSH and the OSHA Metalworking Fluids Standards Advisory Committee have reviewed the health hazards and protective measures. Keywords: aerosols; endotoxin; cancer; hypersensitivity pneumonitis; asthma; skin disorders
{"title":"Metalworking Fluids (MWF)","authors":"F. Mirer","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX117","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX117","url":null,"abstract":"The present chapter summarizes metalworking fluid (MWF). MWF is the term also used for fluids used in various processes and operation for the manufacture of engines, transmissions, and chassis parts. There are two general categories and four major types of MWF. The characteristics and composition of fluids, as well as technological details of application have been reviewed. The experimental evidence suggests that several agents known to be present in MWF have been classified as carcinogenic. Studies also identified the associations of both straight oil and water-reduced MWF with several respiratory diseases. NIOSH and the OSHA Metalworking Fluids Standards Advisory Committee have reviewed the health hazards and protective measures. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000aerosols; \u0000endotoxin; \u0000cancer; \u0000hypersensitivity pneumonitis; \u0000asthma; \u0000skin disorders","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"9 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84088090","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX055.PUB2
R. Clapp, M. Jacobs, W. Lijinsky
N-Nitroso compounds, which include nitrosamines and nitrosamides, have been known for more than 100 years, but nothing was known of their toxicologic properties until 1937, when Freund described a laboratory poisoning by nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Then Barnes and Magee in 1954 (also following an accidental exposure of humans to NDMA being used as a solvent) described a thorough toxicological examination of the compound in several species, in which liver and/or lung injury caused death. This culminated in a chronic toxicity test in rats, which resulted in a high incidence of animals with liver tumors within a year. The finding that a member of a large class of water-soluble compounds was carcinogenic aroused considerable interest and an investigation began into the relationship between the chemical structure of N-nitroso compounds and their carcinogenic properties, initially by Druckrey et al. (mainly in rats), followed by other chemists and pathologists. The objective was to obtain clues to the mechanism(s) of carcinogenesis by these compounds, but other issues arose. One of the most interesting was the widespread nature of nitrosamine carcinogenesis that affected all species examined, although not always were tumors of the same type induced in all species. Indeed, as the number of N-nitroso compounds tested increased (more than 300 have been examined), it became apparent that virtually every type of human tumor was reproduced in some animal with some N-nitroso compound. The N-nitroso compounds varied widely in toxic and carcinogenic potency, but not in parallel, although the most acutely toxic compounds tended to be the most potent carcinogens. Many quite potent carcinogens, however, showed relatively low toxicity, and vice versa. For many years, the carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds were considered an interesting curiosity, but in the 1960s it was found that some batches of fish meal which had been treated with sodium nitrite for preservation caused toxic liver injury in sheep. The cause of the injury was traced to nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) which had formed in the fish meal. This was a surprise because nitrosamines, it was thought, formed by interaction of secondary amines with nitrite in acid solution, not at neutral pH. It has since become obvious that tertiary amines, as well as secondary amines, interact with nitrite under certain conditions (above pH 4) to form nitrosamines. This was information previously known but, like Freund's report, was buried in the literature. Further investigations revealed that many commonly used drugs and medicines which are tertiary amines are also easily nitrosated to form N-nitroso compounds, thereby presenting a risk of human exposure to these carcinogens. In the case of the nitrite-treated fish meal, it is not clearly known whether the NDMA arises by nitrosation of dimethylamine, trimethylamine, trimethylamine-N-oxide, or some other precursor. In addition to nitrites, nitrosation can
n -亚硝基化合物，包括亚硝胺和亚硝胺，已经被发现了100多年，但直到1937年，人们才知道它们的毒理学特性，当时弗洛伊德描述了一次亚硝基二甲胺(NDMA)的实验室中毒。然后，巴恩斯和马吉在1954年(也是在人类意外暴露于NDMA作为溶剂之后)描述了对几种物种中该化合物的彻底毒理学检查，其中肝脏和/或肺部损伤导致死亡。这在大鼠的慢性毒性试验中达到高潮，结果一年内动物肝脏肿瘤的发病率很高。一大类水溶性化合物中的一种具有致癌性，这一发现引起了人们极大的兴趣，并开始对n -亚硝基化合物的化学结构与其致癌性之间的关系进行调查，最初是由Druckrey等人(主要在大鼠中)进行的，随后是其他化学家和病理学家。目的是获得这些化合物致癌机制的线索，但其他问题出现了。其中最有趣的是亚硝胺致癌作用的广泛性，它影响到所有被检查的物种，尽管并非所有物种都诱发相同类型的肿瘤。事实上，随着测试的n -亚硝基化合物数量的增加(已经测试了300多种)，很明显，几乎每种类型的人类肿瘤都可以在某些动物体内复制某些n -亚硝基化合物。n -亚硝基化合物在毒性和致癌性方面差异很大，但不是平行的，尽管毒性最强的化合物往往是最有效的致癌物。然而，许多相当强的致癌物显示出相对较低的毒性，反之亦然。多年来，致癌的n -亚硝基化合物被认为是一种有趣的好奇心，但在20世纪60年代，人们发现，一些批次的鱼粉经亚硝酸钠处理后保存，会对绵羊造成毒性肝损伤。受伤的原因是在鱼粉中形成的亚硝基二甲胺(NDMA)。这是一个惊喜，因为亚硝胺被认为是由仲胺与亚硝酸盐在酸性溶液中相互作用形成的，而不是在中性pH下形成的。从那以后，很明显，叔胺和仲胺在一定条件下(pH高于4)与亚硝酸盐相互作用，形成亚硝胺。这是以前已知的信息，但像弗洛伊德的报告一样，被埋没在文献中。进一步的调查显示，许多常用的叔胺类药物也很容易亚硝化形成n -亚硝基化合物，从而给人类带来接触这些致癌物的风险。就亚硝酸盐处理的鱼粉而言，尚不清楚NDMA是由二甲胺、三甲胺、三甲胺- n -氧化物或其他前体亚硝化引起的。除亚硝酸盐外，燃烧燃料中的“亚氮气体”(氮氧化物)、烷基亚硝酸盐或亚硝胺(通常是无生物活性的)，如亚硝胺酸，也可通过称为亚硝化的过程影响亚硝化。这些古老的研究指出，人体接触到n -亚硝基化合物可能是因为食用了含有n -亚硝基化合物的亚硝酸盐腌制食品(肉或鱼)。啤酒中有NDMA，可能现在仍然存在，它是由麦芽中的生物碱(hordenine和gramine)和其他叔胺与用于加热麦芽的气体中的氮氧化物相互作用产生的;据报道，某些啤酒中的NDMA含量高达百万分之50。在腌肉中寻找烷基亚硝基源物质是由于一些流行病学观察结果，这些观察结果将儿童脑癌与怀孕母亲大量食用腌肉联系起来，而且烷基亚硝基源物质在怀孕大鼠或小鼠中的经胎盘作用可能是诱发神经系统肿瘤的最佳动物模型。自1974年首次报道烟草烟雾中的亚硝胺(NDMA)以来，主要由Hoffmann和Hecht小组对这一主题进行了大量研究。除了挥发性亚硝胺、亚硝基吡咯烷、NDMA、NMEA和NDEA外，还发现了一些所谓的“烟草特异性”亚硝胺:亚硝基烟碱和4-(甲基亚硝胺)-1-(3-吡啶基)-1-丁酮(简称NNK)，这是一种强致癌物，可导致大鼠和仓鼠的肝脏和肺部肿瘤，是烟草和烟草烟雾中最丰富的致癌物之一。NNK也是咀嚼烟草或鼻烟中的重要成分(高达8ppm)，是这些产品中为数不多的致癌物之一(亚硝基索尼古丁是另一种，但弱得多)，它肯定会增加使用者的致癌风险，他们经常患上口腔癌。 人类接触n -亚硝基化合物的其他来源包括生产或使用亚硝胺(通常是NDMA)的工厂(如生产或使用火箭燃料1,1-二甲肼的工厂)内和附近的空气，以及生产农药的工厂(农药通常以二甲胺盐的形式储存或销售，氮氧化物可转化为挥发性NDMA)。亚硝胺的一个重要来源是橡胶和轮胎工业。在制革场所也发现了亚硝胺(主要是NDMA)。亚硝胺的最大工业暴露可能来自金属加工液(包括切削油)，其中亚硝基二乙醇胺(NDELA)的浓度高达3%，尽管通常较低。NDELA是由作为乳化剂的三乙醇胺(含有二乙醇胺)与作为缓蚀剂的亚硝酸钠结合而成。金属加工液中可能存在的烷醇胺、醛和亚硝酸盐的组合也可产生含氧的环亚硝胺，如亚硝基恶唑烷，这是一种强致癌物。通常使用亚硝酸盐作为易拉罐的腐蚀抑制剂，导致罐装运输的许多胺受到污染，并导致洗发水和其他个人卫生制剂中存在亚硝胺，如甲基亚硝基十二烷基胺和甲基亚硝基十四乙胺。据报道，土壤、水和污水中都含有亚硝胺，但信息不完整。关键词:代谢;激活;亚硝胺的食物来源;N-Nitroso化合物;诱变;风险评估;致癌性 人类接触n -亚硝基化合物的其他来源包括生产或使用亚硝胺(通常是NDMA)的工厂(如生产或使用火箭燃料1,1-二甲肼的工厂)内和附近的空气，以及生产农药的工厂(农药通常以二甲胺盐的形式储存或销售，氮氧化物可转化为挥发性NDMA)。亚硝胺的一个重要来源是橡胶和轮胎工业。在制革场所也发现了亚硝胺(主要是NDMA)。亚硝胺的最大工业暴露可能来自金属加工液(包括切削油)，其中亚硝基二乙醇胺(NDELA)的浓度高达3%，尽管通常较低。NDELA是由作为乳化剂的三乙醇胺(含有二乙醇胺)与作为缓蚀剂的亚硝酸钠结合而成。金属加工液中可能存在的烷醇胺、醛和亚硝酸盐的组合也可产生含氧的环亚硝胺，如亚硝基恶唑烷，这是一种强致癌物。通常使用亚硝酸盐作为易拉罐的腐蚀抑制剂，导致罐装运输的许多胺受到污染，并导致洗发水和其他个人卫生制剂中存在亚硝胺，如甲基亚硝基十二烷基胺和甲基亚硝基十四乙胺。据报道，土壤、水和污水中都含有亚硝胺，但信息不完整。关键词:代谢;激活;亚硝胺的食物来源;N-Nitroso化合物;诱变;风险评估;致癌性
{"title":"N-Nitroso Compounds†","authors":"R. Clapp, M. Jacobs, W. Lijinsky","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX055.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX055.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"N-Nitroso compounds, which include nitrosamines and nitrosamides, have been known for more than 100 years, but nothing was known of their toxicologic properties until 1937, when Freund described a laboratory poisoning by nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Then Barnes and Magee in 1954 (also following an accidental exposure of humans to NDMA being used as a solvent) described a thorough toxicological examination of the compound in several species, in which liver and/or lung injury caused death. This culminated in a chronic toxicity test in rats, which resulted in a high incidence of animals with liver tumors within a year. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The finding that a member of a large class of water-soluble compounds was carcinogenic aroused considerable interest and an investigation began into the relationship between the chemical structure of N-nitroso compounds and their carcinogenic properties, initially by Druckrey et al. (mainly in rats), followed by other chemists and pathologists. The objective was to obtain clues to the mechanism(s) of carcinogenesis by these compounds, but other issues arose. One of the most interesting was the widespread nature of nitrosamine carcinogenesis that affected all species examined, although not always were tumors of the same type induced in all species. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Indeed, as the number of N-nitroso compounds tested increased (more than 300 have been examined), it became apparent that virtually every type of human tumor was reproduced in some animal with some N-nitroso compound. The N-nitroso compounds varied widely in toxic and carcinogenic potency, but not in parallel, although the most acutely toxic compounds tended to be the most potent carcinogens. Many quite potent carcinogens, however, showed relatively low toxicity, and vice versa. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000For many years, the carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds were considered an interesting curiosity, but in the 1960s it was found that some batches of fish meal which had been treated with sodium nitrite for preservation caused toxic liver injury in sheep. The cause of the injury was traced to nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) which had formed in the fish meal. This was a surprise because nitrosamines, it was thought, formed by interaction of secondary amines with nitrite in acid solution, not at neutral pH. It has since become obvious that tertiary amines, as well as secondary amines, interact with nitrite under certain conditions (above pH 4) to form nitrosamines. This was information previously known but, like Freund's report, was buried in the literature. Further investigations revealed that many commonly used drugs and medicines which are tertiary amines are also easily nitrosated to form N-nitroso compounds, thereby presenting a risk of human exposure to these carcinogens. In the case of the nitrite-treated fish meal, it is not clearly known whether the NDMA arises by nitrosation of dimethylamine, trimethylamine, trimethylamine-N-oxide, or some other precursor. In addition to nitrites, nitrosation can","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"95 1","pages":"401-432"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83999310","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX069.PUB2
J. Bus, A. Leber
This chapter presents information on two structurally and toxicologically different classes of chlorinated pesticides: the organochlorine insecticides and the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4D). The first group described, the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, belong to a structural class containing only carbon, hydrogen and chlorine. This pesticide group has dramatically decreased in use and fallen into regulatory disfavor because, in general, its structural properties promote both persistence in the environment and bioaccumulation within the food chain. In contrast the herbicide 2,4D contains carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and oxygen, and is a widely used herbicide with environmental and toxicological properties distinctly different from the organochlorine insecticides. The organochlorine insecticides represent the first group of synthetic compounds to have a significant impact on the control of infectious diseases transmitted via insect vectors. These insecticides were used extensively in the United States and other Western countries, and are still used in Third World regions as both agricultural insecticides and agents to combat such vectorborne diseases as malaria, typhus, plague, Chagas' disease, yellow fever, dengue, encephalitis, filariasis, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Of these insecticides, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is credited as the primary compound that, for the first time in history, brought epidemics of malaria, typhus, and plague to a complete stop. DDT was introduced in 1943, with related insecticides following shortly thereafter. This chemical is still used extensively in tropical regions to combat malarial mosquitoes, and substitution of this pesticide with others such as malathion would be most expensive. One attribute that contributes to the effectiveness of this chemical class is its persistence in the environment, providing not only an immediate impact on insect populations but also a prolonged insecticidal presence extending well beyond the time of application. This persistence is now generally considered an undesirable feature owing to findings suggesting delayed adverse impacts on nontarget populations of insects as well as birds. In addition, increased cancer risks for humans are alleged to result from exposures to these chemicals such as those resulting from pesticide applications and ingestion of contaminated fish and other food species. Although the actual balance of risks versus benefits associated with the use of these insecticides is debated, regulatory action has virtually eliminated their use in the United States and other western countries. Summarizes the regulatory status of these products. The persistence of these insecticides in the environment and their prolonged activity against pests following application can be attributed to a combination of their insolubility in water and high solubility in fats, absorption and adsorption onto particulate
{"title":"Miscellaneous Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides","authors":"J. Bus, A. Leber","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX069.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX069.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter presents information on two structurally and toxicologically different classes of chlorinated pesticides: the organochlorine insecticides and the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4D). The first group described, the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, belong to a structural class containing only carbon, hydrogen and chlorine. This pesticide group has dramatically decreased in use and fallen into regulatory disfavor because, in general, its structural properties promote both persistence in the environment and bioaccumulation within the food chain. In contrast the herbicide 2,4D contains carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and oxygen, and is a widely used herbicide with environmental and toxicological properties distinctly different from the organochlorine insecticides. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The organochlorine insecticides represent the first group of synthetic compounds to have a significant impact on the control of infectious diseases transmitted via insect vectors. These insecticides were used extensively in the United States and other Western countries, and are still used in Third World regions as both agricultural insecticides and agents to combat such vectorborne diseases as malaria, typhus, plague, Chagas' disease, yellow fever, dengue, encephalitis, filariasis, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Of these insecticides, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is credited as the primary compound that, for the first time in history, brought epidemics of malaria, typhus, and plague to a complete stop. DDT was introduced in 1943, with related insecticides following shortly thereafter. This chemical is still used extensively in tropical regions to combat malarial mosquitoes, and substitution of this pesticide with others such as malathion would be most expensive. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000One attribute that contributes to the effectiveness of this chemical class is its persistence in the environment, providing not only an immediate impact on insect populations but also a prolonged insecticidal presence extending well beyond the time of application. This persistence is now generally considered an undesirable feature owing to findings suggesting delayed adverse impacts on nontarget populations of insects as well as birds. In addition, increased cancer risks for humans are alleged to result from exposures to these chemicals such as those resulting from pesticide applications and ingestion of contaminated fish and other food species. Although the actual balance of risks versus benefits associated with the use of these insecticides is debated, regulatory action has virtually eliminated their use in the United States and other western countries. Summarizes the regulatory status of these products. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The persistence of these insecticides in the environment and their prolonged activity against pests following application can be attributed to a combination of their insolubility in water and high solubility in fats, absorption and adsorption onto particulate","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"53 4 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90081903","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX080.PUB2
R. M. David, Ammie N. Bachman, J. Butala, J. Piper, Catherine Shelp
This chapter presents information on esters of mono-, di-, and tricarboxylic acids with monoalcohols from 1 to over 10 carbons in either a straight chain or branched configuration. In general, the properties (chemical and functional) change with the carbon length of the alcohol. Properties shift from higher water solubility and lower boiling point to lower water solubility and higher boiling point for esters of a particular acid group. There is insufficient information to conclude that the carbon length of the acid group influences the properties significantly. Also included are esters of the trialcohol, glycerol, with monocarboxylic acids. These substances are included for the sake of completeness. All esters are subject to hydrolysis, especially enzymatic hydrolysis. Most esters in biotic systems hydrolyze primarily to the carboxylic acid and alcohol. There are some exceptions such as esters of phthalic acid that form relatively stable monoesters in biotic systems, which can be further oxidized. The uses of various esters are reviewed below and they vary with the acid. The simple aliphatic esters of benzoic acid are liquids that are used as solvents, flavors, or perfumes. Benzyl benzoate is used as a miticide or as a plasticizer. In general, these compounds have a low order of toxicity. The primary effects expected from the ingestion of moderate amounts of benzoates are gastrointestinal (GI) irritation, gastric pain, nausea, and vomiting. Available data indicate a low order of skin absorbability, and the undiluted materials may be either slight or moderate skin irritants. In rabbits, the degree of skin irritation caused by alkyl benzoates increases with an increase in molecular weight. The salicylates are used as flavorants, perfumes, or analgesics. The most commonly used member of this class of compounds is methyl salicylate. Ingestion of relatively small quantities of methyl salicylate may cause severe, rapid-onset salicylate poisoning. The lower alkyl esters of p- or 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (C1–C4), also named the methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, and butyl parabens, are high-boiling liquids that decompose on heating. They are widely used in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries as preservatives, bacteristats, and fungistats. Parabens also have been used therapeutically in the treatment of moniliasis, a Candida albicans infection. By the oral route, parabens are rapidly absorbed, metabolized, and excreted. The lower paraben homologues have low potential for acute or chronic systemic toxicity and are therefore approved as human food additives. Cinnamates (phenyl acrylates and phenylpropenoic acid esters) are mainly used as fragrances in the perfume industry. Cinnamates appear to have low to moderate toxicity in mammals. In humans, dermal exposure to allyl cinnamate may cause skin irritation. Some p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) esters occur naturally, because the free compound, PABA, that is utili
{"title":"Esters of Mono‐, Di‐, and Tricarboxylic Acids","authors":"R. M. David, Ammie N. Bachman, J. Butala, J. Piper, Catherine Shelp","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX080.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX080.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter presents information on esters of mono-, di-, and tricarboxylic acids with monoalcohols from 1 to over 10 carbons in either a straight chain or branched configuration. In general, the properties (chemical and functional) change with the carbon length of the alcohol. Properties shift from higher water solubility and lower boiling point to lower water solubility and higher boiling point for esters of a particular acid group. There is insufficient information to conclude that the carbon length of the acid group influences the properties significantly. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Also included are esters of the trialcohol, glycerol, with monocarboxylic acids. These substances are included for the sake of completeness. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000All esters are subject to hydrolysis, especially enzymatic hydrolysis. Most esters in biotic systems hydrolyze primarily to the carboxylic acid and alcohol. There are some exceptions such as esters of phthalic acid that form relatively stable monoesters in biotic systems, which can be further oxidized. The uses of various esters are reviewed below and they vary with the acid. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The simple aliphatic esters of benzoic acid are liquids that are used as solvents, flavors, or perfumes. Benzyl benzoate is used as a miticide or as a plasticizer. In general, these compounds have a low order of toxicity. The primary effects expected from the ingestion of moderate amounts of benzoates are gastrointestinal (GI) irritation, gastric pain, nausea, and vomiting. Available data indicate a low order of skin absorbability, and the undiluted materials may be either slight or moderate skin irritants. In rabbits, the degree of skin irritation caused by alkyl benzoates increases with an increase in molecular weight. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The salicylates are used as flavorants, perfumes, or analgesics. The most commonly used member of this class of compounds is methyl salicylate. Ingestion of relatively small quantities of methyl salicylate may cause severe, rapid-onset salicylate poisoning. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The lower alkyl esters of p- or 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (C1–C4), also named the methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, and butyl parabens, are high-boiling liquids that decompose on heating. They are widely used in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries as preservatives, bacteristats, and fungistats. Parabens also have been used therapeutically in the treatment of moniliasis, a Candida albicans infection. By the oral route, parabens are rapidly absorbed, metabolized, and excreted. The lower paraben homologues have low potential for acute or chronic systemic toxicity and are therefore approved as human food additives. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Cinnamates (phenyl acrylates and phenylpropenoic acid esters) are mainly used as fragrances in the perfume industry. Cinnamates appear to have low to moderate toxicity in mammals. In humans, dermal exposure to allyl cinnamate may cause skin irritation. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Some p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) esters occur naturally, because the free compound, PABA, that is utili","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"27 1","pages":"147-352"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74767345","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX058.PUB2
Y. Woo, D. Lai
Aromatic amines are organic compounds that contain at least one amino group attached directly to an aryl moiety. Aromatic amines represent one of the most important classes of industrial and environmental chemicals. Many aromatic amines have been shown to be potent carcinogens, mutagens, skin sensitizers, and/or hematotoxicants capable of inducing methemoglobinemia. Since the introduction of substituted anilines and naphthylamines as intermediates for the manufacture of azo dyes in the mid-1800s, aromatic amines have found numerous uses in various industries. Substantial worker exposure to aromatic amines with subsequent induction of bladder cancer occurred before preventive measures were instituted. Beyond occupational exposure, humans may also be exposed to aromatic amines through environmental sources. At least three carcinogenic aromatic amines (4-aminobiphenyl, 2-naphthylamine, and o-toluidine) have been detected in cigarette smoke. Many commonly used pharmaceuticals contain or are aromatic amines. Owing to their hazard potential, aromatic amines have been the subject of many biomonitoring studies, making them model compounds in molecular dosimetry and epidemiology studies. Since extensive information is available on the metabolic pathways and, to a lesser extent, the mechanism(s) of action, aromatic amines have also become targets for genetic polymorphism studies with ultimate goals of identifying susceptible subpopulations and designing of strategies for cancer prevention and intervention. The multifaceted interest in aromatic amines has continued to attract a tremendous amount of scientific studies and attention. Since the publication of the previous edition of Patty's on aromatic amines, many reviews and important research articles on aromatic amines and halogenated nitroaromatics have been published. In addition, a number of heterocyclic aromatic amines have attracted increasing attention as carcinogens of environmental significance. In this chapter, we present an overview of the aromatic amine class as a whole with emphasis on recent studies, followed by an updated description on individual chemicals grouped into eight subgroups of structurally related compounds. Keywords: Aromatic amino compounds; carcinogenicity; halogenated derivatives; hemoglobin binding; mechanism of action; methemoglobinemia; mutagenicity; nitro–amino compounds; skin sensitization; teratogenicity
芳香胺是含有至少一个直接连接到芳基部分的氨基的有机化合物。芳香胺是工业和环境化学品中最重要的一类。许多芳香胺已被证明是强致癌物、诱变剂、皮肤致敏剂和/或能够诱导高铁血红蛋白血症的血液毒物。自从19世纪中期引入取代苯胺和萘胺作为制造偶氮染料的中间体以来，芳香胺在各种工业中得到了广泛的应用。在采取预防措施之前，大量工人接触芳香胺并随后诱发膀胱癌。除了职业接触外，人类还可能通过环境来源接触芳香胺。在香烟烟雾中已检出至少三种致癌芳香胺(4-氨基联苯、2-萘胺和邻甲苯胺)。许多常用的药物含有或就是芳香胺。由于其潜在的危害，芳香胺已成为许多生物监测研究的主题，使其成为分子剂量学和流行病学研究的模型化合物。由于关于代谢途径的广泛信息以及在较小程度上的作用机制，芳香胺也成为遗传多态性研究的目标，其最终目标是确定易感亚群并设计癌症预防和干预策略。芳香族胺的研究引起了广泛的科学研究和关注。自上一期《Patty’s on aromatic amines》出版以来，出现了许多关于芳香胺和卤代硝基芳烃的综述和重要研究文章。此外，一些杂环芳香胺作为具有环境意义的致癌物越来越受到人们的关注。在本章中，我们概述了芳香胺类作为一个整体，重点介绍了最近的研究，其次是对单个化学物质的更新描述，分为结构相关化合物的八个亚群。关键词:芳香族氨基化合物;致癌性;卤代衍生物;血红蛋白绑定;作用机理;高铁血红蛋白症;诱变;nitro-amino化合物;皮肤敏化;致畸性
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Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX021.PUB2
J. Yadav, R. Kapoor
Mycobacteria are a group of microbial pathogens associated with tuberculosis (TB), one of the world's most prevalent human disease and several nontuberculous diseases in humans. Another major human infection caused by this genus is leprosy. TB is predominantly a pulmonary disease infecting lungs but extrapulmonary TB is also prevalent and includes lymphatic, pleural, meningeal, pericardial, skeletal, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, or miliary form. The genus Mycobacterium comprises of about 130 species that are groupable into two major categories: (A) the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex: it comprises of two obligate pathogenic species, namely M. tuberculosis (the agent of tuberculosis) and Mycobacterium leprae (the agent of leprosy). This complex contains four other species of mycobacteria that also cause TB viz., Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium microti, and Mycobacterium canetti. (B) The nontuberculous mycobacteria (also called atypical mycobacteria or environmental mycobacteria): this group comprises of a large number of saprophytic species that live freely in the environment such as in soils, water, and other organic matrices. These organisms may be inhaled via dust particles or ingested via drinking water or food and produce various syndromes. Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are increasingly being recognized to cause human infections, frequently in immunosuppressed individuals such as those who have organ transplants, individuals being treated for leukemia or cancer, and patients suffering from AIDS. The range of infections caused by NTM species is very broad and includes pulmonary infections (symptoms often indistinguishable from TB), cervical lymphadenitis, skin infections, bone and soft tissue infections, and nosocomial infections. An occupational disease in machinists, designated hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) has also been associated with NTM species (Mycobacterium immunogenum and Mycobacterium chelonae) that have the ability to colonize metalworking fluids in occupational environments. Although this chapter focuses primarily on tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacteria that are associated with human disease are also discussed. It includes discussions on taxonomy, growth requirements, as well as the morphological characteristics, physiology, pathogenicity, and the metabolic activity of these organisms. Keywords: epidemiology; exposure; Mycobacterium tuberculosis; nontuberculous mycobacteria; prevention; risk factors; treatment; tuberculosis
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