Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX019.PUB2
T. Reponen, B. Green
In this chapter, sources and characteristics of airborne microbiological contaminants, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, are discussed in relation to their detection and health effects associated with personal exposure in the occupational environment. The impacts of microorganisms including protists and protozoans and other botanically sourced bioaerosols such as pollen are not reviewed in this chapter. The potential exposures to microbial bioaerosols and the aerodynamic behavior of these contaminants are reviewed as well as their respiratory and dermal health effects. Direct and indirect sampling methods are presented along with methods of analysis. Methods to prevent personal exposure are also provided. Keywords: aerobiology; aerodynamic behavior of microbial contaminants; allergies; bacteria; control; disease; endotoxins; fungi; infection; moisture problems; mold; mycotoxins prevention; sampling; sources; transmission
{"title":"Microbial Bioaerosols in the Occupational Environment: Exposure, Detection, and Disease","authors":"T. Reponen, B. Green","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX019.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX019.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"In this chapter, sources and characteristics of airborne microbiological contaminants, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, are discussed in relation to their detection and health effects associated with personal exposure in the occupational environment. The impacts of microorganisms including protists and protozoans and other botanically sourced bioaerosols such as pollen are not reviewed in this chapter. The potential exposures to microbial bioaerosols and the aerodynamic behavior of these contaminants are reviewed as well as their respiratory and dermal health effects. Direct and indirect sampling methods are presented along with methods of analysis. Methods to prevent personal exposure are also provided. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000aerobiology; \u0000aerodynamic behavior of microbial contaminants; \u0000allergies; \u0000bacteria; \u0000control; \u0000disease; \u0000endotoxins; \u0000fungi; \u0000infection; \u0000moisture problems; \u0000mold; \u0000mycotoxins prevention; \u0000sampling; \u0000sources; \u0000transmission","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"128 1","pages":"499-534"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88136981","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX018.PUB2
J. Merchant
Byssinosis is a generic term applied to acute and chronic airway disease among those occupationally exposed to vegetable dust arising from the processing of cotton, flax, hemp, and possibly other textile fibers. Observations regarding respiratory disease attributable to these vegetable dusts date to the early eighteenth century. Today the production of cotton products is commercially important to developed and developing countries alike. Processing of flax and hemp remains regionally important industries, which continue to provide traditional textile products. Thus several million workers are occupationally exposed to these vegetable dusts worldwide. In the United States more than 300,000 workers are directly exposed to cotton dust, primarily in the textile industry, but also in cotton ginning, cotton warehousing and compressing, cotton classing offices, cottonseed oil and delinting mills, bedding and batting manufacturing, and utilization of waste cotton for a wide variety of products. Two febrile syndromes characterized by fever, cough, and other constitutional symptoms including headache and malaise are also associated with byssinosis and textile manufacturing. These occur most frequently with exposure to low-grade, spotted cotton. Mattress-maker's fever and weaver's cough may be considered together because of their characteristically high attack rate and probable similar etiology. Mill fever, which is characterized by fever, malaise, myalgia, fatigue, and often cough, was a common complaint among workers first exposed to high levels of these vegetable dusts, with the prevailing cotton dust levels in the Western world it now rarely occurs. These febrile syndromes are similar to other febrile syndromes described among agricultural workers exposed to high levels of contaminated vegetable dusts. It is now also clear that symptoms typical of byssinosis are observed among others occupationally exposed to vegetable dusts. Many of those exposed are employed in agriculture, which typically involves daily exposure, rather than the cyclical workweek exposure of textile workers. It is also clear that exposure to organic dusts in textile and nontextile operations will often result in clinical asthma. This often results in self-selection or transfer of the affected worker out of dusty jobs or entirely out of the industry. There is also now evidence that exposure to textile dusts results in heightened airway reactivity and that atopy is a risk factor for the development of vegetable-dust-induced bronchoconstriction. These observations are likely to become more relevant with regulation of cotton dust to lower levels. This may allow toleration of lower exposure to cotton dust by many of those who were previously selected out of these industries because of asthma, thereby resulting in increased risk to the development of chronic airway disease. Keywords: Epidemiology; Textile workers; Clinical evaluations; Signs; Symptoms; Lung funct
{"title":"Cotton and Other Textile Dusts","authors":"J. Merchant","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX018.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX018.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Byssinosis is a generic term applied to acute and chronic airway disease among those occupationally exposed to vegetable dust arising from the processing of cotton, flax, hemp, and possibly other textile fibers. Observations regarding respiratory disease attributable to these vegetable dusts date to the early eighteenth century. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Today the production of cotton products is commercially important to developed and developing countries alike. Processing of flax and hemp remains regionally important industries, which continue to provide traditional textile products. Thus several million workers are occupationally exposed to these vegetable dusts worldwide. In the United States more than 300,000 workers are directly exposed to cotton dust, primarily in the textile industry, but also in cotton ginning, cotton warehousing and compressing, cotton classing offices, cottonseed oil and delinting mills, bedding and batting manufacturing, and utilization of waste cotton for a wide variety of products. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Two febrile syndromes characterized by fever, cough, and other constitutional symptoms including headache and malaise are also associated with byssinosis and textile manufacturing. These occur most frequently with exposure to low-grade, spotted cotton. Mattress-maker's fever and weaver's cough may be considered together because of their characteristically high attack rate and probable similar etiology. Mill fever, which is characterized by fever, malaise, myalgia, fatigue, and often cough, was a common complaint among workers first exposed to high levels of these vegetable dusts, with the prevailing cotton dust levels in the Western world it now rarely occurs. These febrile syndromes are similar to other febrile syndromes described among agricultural workers exposed to high levels of contaminated vegetable dusts. It is now also clear that symptoms typical of byssinosis are observed among others occupationally exposed to vegetable dusts. Many of those exposed are employed in agriculture, which typically involves daily exposure, rather than the cyclical workweek exposure of textile workers. It is also clear that exposure to organic dusts in textile and nontextile operations will often result in clinical asthma. This often results in self-selection or transfer of the affected worker out of dusty jobs or entirely out of the industry. There is also now evidence that exposure to textile dusts results in heightened airway reactivity and that atopy is a risk factor for the development of vegetable-dust-induced bronchoconstriction. These observations are likely to become more relevant with regulation of cotton dust to lower levels. This may allow toleration of lower exposure to cotton dust by many of those who were previously selected out of these industries because of asthma, thereby resulting in increased risk to the development of chronic airway disease. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Epidemiology; \u0000Textile workers; \u0000Clinical evaluations; \u0000Signs; \u0000Symptoms; \u0000Lung funct","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"47 1","pages":"489-498"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75732411","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX051.PUB2
P. Infante, E. Bingham
{"title":"Aromatic Hydrocarbons—Benzene and Other Alkylbenzenes","authors":"P. Infante, E. Bingham","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX051.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX051.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"5 1","pages":"1-68"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73726358","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX062.PUB2
J. B. Reid, C. Muianga
Chlorinated methanes (also ethanes) are among the most widely used and useful chemical compounds. There are potentially 26 compounds with other multiple halogen substitutions. Eleven important or representative compounds were selected to discuss in this chapter. The physical states vary from colorless gases: methyl chloride and methyl bromide; colorless liquids: methyl iodide, methylene chloride, methylene bromide, chloroform, bromoform (heavy), and carbon tetrachloride; and a yellow solid, iodoform, and colorless solid; carbon tetrabromide. The main use of methyl chloride is in the manufacture of silicone while methylene chloride, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride have been used as solvents, paint removers, degreasers, cleaning compounds, and chemical intermediates. The following table provides toxicity information (reference doses, RfD; reference concentrations, RfC; oral slope factors (carcinogen), OSF; and inhalation unit risks (carcinogen), IUR) from Integrated Risk Information Service (IRIS). It can be seen that the RfDs (oral exposure for lifetime) for the chemicals that have been evaluated are in the order of 10−2 to 10−3 mg/kg/day. The inhalation RfCs (inhalation exposure) for chemicals that have been evaluated are 10−2 to 10−3 mg/m3. For the chemicals indicated as either probable human carcinogens or methylene chloride, chloroform, bromoform, and likely to be a human carcinogen, carbon tetrachloride, the OSF (per mg/kg/day) are in the order of 10−2 to 10−3. The IURs for the chemicals evaluated are of the order of 10−5 to 10−6 per μg/m3. Fluorene compounds are not included in this chapter as they represent a very special case of halogenated compounds. Chemical RfD (mg/kg/day RfC (mg/m3) Cancer Description OSF (Per mg/kg/day) IUR (Per μg/m3) References Methyl chloride None 9E−2 Brain Not classified None None Toxicological Review (2001) Methyl bromide 1.4E−3 5E−3 Nasal Not classified None None No Toxicological Review Methyl iodide None None None None None No Toxicological Review Methylene chloride 6E−2 Liver None Probable human 7.5E−3 4.7E−7 No Toxicological Review Methylene bromide None None None None None None Chloroform 1E−2 Liver None Probable human RfD 1E−2 2.3E−5 Toxicological Review (2001) Bromoform 2E−2 Liver None Probable human 7.9E−3 1.1E−6 No Toxicological Review Iodoform None None None None None No Toxicological Review Carbon tetrachloride 4E−3 Serum SDH 1E−1 Likely human 7E−2 6E−6 Toxicological Review (2010) Carbon tetrabromide None None None None None No Toxicological Review Methylene chlorobromide None None None None None No Toxicological Review Several of the compounds listed in the above table are receiving attention because of their presence as disinfection by-products (DBPs): products formed in reaction with chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramines with naturally occurring organic matter in drinking water. A comprehensive review was provided in Mutation Research in conjunction with the
{"title":"Halogenated One-Carbon Compounds","authors":"J. B. Reid, C. Muianga","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX062.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX062.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Chlorinated methanes (also ethanes) are among the most widely used and useful chemical compounds. There are potentially 26 compounds with other multiple halogen substitutions. Eleven important or representative compounds were selected to discuss in this chapter. The physical states vary from colorless gases: methyl chloride and methyl bromide; colorless liquids: methyl iodide, methylene chloride, methylene bromide, chloroform, bromoform (heavy), and carbon tetrachloride; and a yellow solid, iodoform, and colorless solid; carbon tetrabromide. The main use of methyl chloride is in the manufacture of silicone while methylene chloride, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride have been used as solvents, paint removers, degreasers, cleaning compounds, and chemical intermediates. The following table provides toxicity information (reference doses, RfD; reference concentrations, RfC; oral slope factors (carcinogen), OSF; and inhalation unit risks (carcinogen), IUR) from Integrated Risk Information Service (IRIS). It can be seen that the RfDs (oral exposure for lifetime) for the chemicals that have been evaluated are in the order of 10−2 to 10−3 mg/kg/day. The inhalation RfCs (inhalation exposure) for chemicals that have been evaluated are 10−2 to 10−3 mg/m3. For the chemicals indicated as either probable human carcinogens or methylene chloride, chloroform, bromoform, and likely to be a human carcinogen, carbon tetrachloride, the OSF (per mg/kg/day) are in the order of 10−2 to 10−3. The IURs for the chemicals evaluated are of the order of 10−5 to 10−6 per μg/m3. Fluorene compounds are not included in this chapter as they represent a very special case of halogenated compounds. \u0000 \u0000 Chemical RfD (mg/kg/day RfC (mg/m3) Cancer Description OSF (Per mg/kg/day) IUR (Per μg/m3) References \u0000Methyl chloride None 9E−2 Brain Not classified None None Toxicological Review (2001) \u0000Methyl bromide 1.4E−3 5E−3 Nasal Not classified None None No Toxicological Review \u0000Methyl iodide None None None None None No Toxicological Review \u0000Methylene chloride 6E−2 Liver None Probable human 7.5E−3 4.7E−7 No Toxicological Review \u0000Methylene bromide None None None None None None \u0000Chloroform 1E−2 Liver None Probable human RfD 1E−2 2.3E−5 Toxicological Review (2001) \u0000Bromoform 2E−2 Liver None Probable human 7.9E−3 1.1E−6 No Toxicological Review \u0000Iodoform None None None None None No Toxicological Review \u0000Carbon tetrachloride 4E−3 Serum SDH 1E−1 Likely human 7E−2 6E−6 Toxicological Review (2010) \u0000Carbon tetrabromide None None None None None No Toxicological Review \u0000Methylene chlorobromide None None None None None No Toxicological Review \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Several of the compounds listed in the above table are receiving attention because of their presence as disinfection by-products (DBPs): products formed in reaction with chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramines with naturally occurring organic matter in drinking water. A comprehensive review was provided in Mutation Research in conjunction with the","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"52 1","pages":"1-60"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84704115","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX082.PUB2
J. Waechter, L. Pottenger, G. Veenstra
An epoxy compound is defined as any compound containing one or more oxirane rings. An oxirane ring (epoxide) consists of an oxygen atom linked to two adjacent (vicinal) carbon atoms. The term alpha-epoxide is sometimes used for this structure to distinguish it from rings containing more carbon atoms. The alpha does not indicate where in a carbon chain the oxirane ring occurs. The oxirane ring is highly strained and is thus the most reactive ring of the oxacyclic carbon compounds. The strain is sufficient to force the four carbon atoms nearest to the oxygen atom in 1,2-epoxycyclohexane into a common plane, whereas in cyclohexane the carbon atoms are in a zigzag arrangement or boat structure. As a result of this strain, epoxy compounds are attacked by almost all nucleophilic substances to open the ring and form addition compounds. Agents reacting with epoxy compounds include halogen acids, thiosulfate, carboxylic acids, hydrogen cyanide, water, amines, aldehydes, and alcohols. A major portion of this chapter presents information on the two simplest olefin oxides, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, both of which are produced in high volume and are largely used as intermediates in the production of many other products such as the glycol ethers, polyethylene glycols, ethanolamines, and hydroxypropylcellulose. These epoxides have minor uses as fumigants for furs and spices, and as medical sterilants. The other olefin oxides discussed are used as chemical intermediates (e.g., vinylcyclohexene mono- and dioxide), as gasoline additives, acid scavengers, and stabilizing agents in chlorinated solvents (butylene oxide) or in limited quantities as reactive diluents for epoxy resins. The discussion of the toxicology of certain olefinic oxides may be pertinent to their respective olefin precursors. However, it must be pointed out that the olefinic precursors of these different oxides demonstrate widely varying degrees of toxicity in mammalian models, mostly attributable to pharmacokinetic/metabolism differences in metabolic conversion of olefins to their respective oxide metabolites. For example, chronic bioassay results for olefins range from repeated negatives (ethylene, propylene) to clear positives (butadiene). A major use of the glycidyl ethers discussed in this chapter is as reactive diluents in epoxy resin mixtures. However, some of these materials are also used as intermediates in chemical synthesis as well as in other industrial applications. The concept that epoxides can produce toxic effects through their binding to nucleophilic macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and protein, is well established. However, the magnitude and nature of physiological disruption depend on factors such as the reactivity of the particular epoxide, its molecular weight, and its solubility, all of which may control its access to critical molecular targets. In addition, the number of epoxide groups present, the dose and dose-rate, the route of admini
{"title":"Epoxy Compounds—Olefin Oxides, Aliphatic Glycidyl Ethers and Aromatic Monoglycidyl Ethers","authors":"J. Waechter, L. Pottenger, G. Veenstra","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX082.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX082.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"An epoxy compound is defined as any compound containing one or more oxirane rings. An oxirane ring (epoxide) consists of an oxygen atom linked to two adjacent (vicinal) carbon atoms. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The term alpha-epoxide is sometimes used for this structure to distinguish it from rings containing more carbon atoms. The alpha does not indicate where in a carbon chain the oxirane ring occurs. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The oxirane ring is highly strained and is thus the most reactive ring of the oxacyclic carbon compounds. The strain is sufficient to force the four carbon atoms nearest to the oxygen atom in 1,2-epoxycyclohexane into a common plane, whereas in cyclohexane the carbon atoms are in a zigzag arrangement or boat structure. As a result of this strain, epoxy compounds are attacked by almost all nucleophilic substances to open the ring and form addition compounds. Agents reacting with epoxy compounds include halogen acids, thiosulfate, carboxylic acids, hydrogen cyanide, water, amines, aldehydes, and alcohols. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000A major portion of this chapter presents information on the two simplest olefin oxides, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, both of which are produced in high volume and are largely used as intermediates in the production of many other products such as the glycol ethers, polyethylene glycols, ethanolamines, and hydroxypropylcellulose. These epoxides have minor uses as fumigants for furs and spices, and as medical sterilants. The other olefin oxides discussed are used as chemical intermediates (e.g., vinylcyclohexene mono- and dioxide), as gasoline additives, acid scavengers, and stabilizing agents in chlorinated solvents (butylene oxide) or in limited quantities as reactive diluents for epoxy resins. The discussion of the toxicology of certain olefinic oxides may be pertinent to their respective olefin precursors. However, it must be pointed out that the olefinic precursors of these different oxides demonstrate widely varying degrees of toxicity in mammalian models, mostly attributable to pharmacokinetic/metabolism differences in metabolic conversion of olefins to their respective oxide metabolites. For example, chronic bioassay results for olefins range from repeated negatives (ethylene, propylene) to clear positives (butadiene). A major use of the glycidyl ethers discussed in this chapter is as reactive diluents in epoxy resin mixtures. However, some of these materials are also used as intermediates in chemical synthesis as well as in other industrial applications. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The concept that epoxides can produce toxic effects through their binding to nucleophilic macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and protein, is well established. However, the magnitude and nature of physiological disruption depend on factors such as the reactivity of the particular epoxide, its molecular weight, and its solubility, all of which may control its access to critical molecular targets. In addition, the number of epoxide groups present, the dose and dose-rate, the route of admini","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"48 1","pages":"425-490"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86012283","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX099.PUB2
W. W. Clark, J. R. Cox
Noise is America's most widespread nuisance. But excessive noise is more than just a nuisance. Day and night, at home or at work or play, excessive noise exposures annoy individuals, produce stress, impair our ability to communicate, interfere with work and play activities, and, in high enough doses, produce permanent damage to the auditory system that can lead to significant hearing loss. Although annoyance caused by noise affects all of us to some degree, this chapter describes the effects of excessive noise on our ability to hear, and on the effects of ultrasonic stimulation on tissue. The chapter is organized in four sections. In the first, consideration is given to the physical characteristics of sound and the measurement of noise exposure. The second section considers the effects of excessive noise exposure within the range of human hearing, approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. In the third section, a review of the effects of infrasonic exposure (<20 Hz) is provided. And, finally, the last section reviews the effects of exposure to ultrasound (20 kHz to 20 μHz) on humans. Engineers and scientists are concerned with sound as an energy that can be measured and quantified; no consideration is usually given to whether the sound can be perceived by humans or not. However, hearing health professionals are usually concerned about the effects of sound on humans: what and how we hear, what sounds please us, what sounds annoy us, what sounds interfere with our ability to communicate with each other and impair our productivity and work safety, and what sounds can be damaging to our hearing. These effects require different measures than “simple” quantitative descriptions of acoustic energy, and often are expressed in perceptual terms, like “loudness” or “pitch.” Keywords: acoustic cavitation; amplified music; biological effects; frequency; gunfire; hearing loss; hearing sensitivity; management; measurement; noise; noise exposure; nonoccupational exposure nonthermal effects; prevention; speech communication; speed of sound; sound; thermal effects; wavelength
{"title":"Noise and Ultrasound","authors":"W. W. Clark, J. R. Cox","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX099.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX099.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Noise is America's most widespread nuisance. But excessive noise is more than just a nuisance. Day and night, at home or at work or play, excessive noise exposures annoy individuals, produce stress, impair our ability to communicate, interfere with work and play activities, and, in high enough doses, produce permanent damage to the auditory system that can lead to significant hearing loss. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Although annoyance caused by noise affects all of us to some degree, this chapter describes the effects of excessive noise on our ability to hear, and on the effects of ultrasonic stimulation on tissue. The chapter is organized in four sections. In the first, consideration is given to the physical characteristics of sound and the measurement of noise exposure. The second section considers the effects of excessive noise exposure within the range of human hearing, approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. In the third section, a review of the effects of infrasonic exposure (<20 Hz) is provided. And, finally, the last section reviews the effects of exposure to ultrasound (20 kHz to 20 μHz) on humans. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Engineers and scientists are concerned with sound as an energy that can be measured and quantified; no consideration is usually given to whether the sound can be perceived by humans or not. However, hearing health professionals are usually concerned about the effects of sound on humans: what and how we hear, what sounds please us, what sounds annoy us, what sounds interfere with our ability to communicate with each other and impair our productivity and work safety, and what sounds can be damaging to our hearing. These effects require different measures than “simple” quantitative descriptions of acoustic energy, and often are expressed in perceptual terms, like “loudness” or “pitch.” \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000acoustic cavitation; \u0000amplified music; \u0000biological effects; \u0000frequency; \u0000gunfire; \u0000hearing loss; \u0000hearing sensitivity; \u0000management; \u0000measurement; \u0000noise; \u0000noise exposure; \u0000nonoccupational exposure nonthermal effects; \u0000prevention; \u0000speech communication; \u0000speed of sound; \u0000sound; \u0000thermal effects; \u0000wavelength","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"63 1","pages":"79-108"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88905020","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX009.PUB2
J. Callaghan, Jennifer Dipper
Knowing how to obtain relevant, up-to-date information about the health effects of a chemical is essential for the effective protection of workers and the environment. The way we access information is changing every day and the amount of occupational health and safety information available is forever expanding. Finding information to meet legislative and regulatory requirements, to write a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or Safety Data Sheet (SDS), to respond to an emergency, to determine the cause of an illness, or to develop a health and safety program can be challenging, overwhelming, and time consuming. Toxicological information and data are of interest to more than workers, toxicologists, industrial hygienists, lawyers, and regulators. The general public is increasingly interested in the health effects of industrial chemicals. Correspondingly, there are many different types of information available to accommodate these diverse needs. Who is doing the research and how the information is going to be used will affect the amount of detail required. For some, knowing that the basic health effects of a particular chemical are respiratory or skin irritation is enough. For others, knowing the quality of the original study or report used to arrive at these conclusions will also be required. For still others, the information will be needed for an emergency so that whatever information is obtained must be gained quickly and be as accurate as possible. This chapter discusses how to locate different types of information on the toxic effects of chemicals, starting with a discussion on how and where to search for information. It will then identify a number of valuable resources that contain specific types of information (e.g., comprehensive reviews, data banks, and fact sheets). Keywords: Bibliographic databases; books; CAS registry numbers; chemical toxicity information; comprehensive reviews; data banks; fact sheets; gateways; Internet; material safety data sheets; original research; organizations; portals; relational databases; resources; safety data sheets; sources; toxicological literature searching; web searching
{"title":"Toxic Chemical Information Sources","authors":"J. Callaghan, Jennifer Dipper","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX009.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX009.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Knowing how to obtain relevant, up-to-date information about the health effects of a chemical is essential for the effective protection of workers and the environment. The way we access information is changing every day and the amount of occupational health and safety information available is forever expanding. Finding information to meet legislative and regulatory requirements, to write a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or Safety Data Sheet (SDS), to respond to an emergency, to determine the cause of an illness, or to develop a health and safety program can be challenging, overwhelming, and time consuming. Toxicological information and data are of interest to more than workers, toxicologists, industrial hygienists, lawyers, and regulators. The general public is increasingly interested in the health effects of industrial chemicals. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Correspondingly, there are many different types of information available to accommodate these diverse needs. Who is doing the research and how the information is going to be used will affect the amount of detail required. For some, knowing that the basic health effects of a particular chemical are respiratory or skin irritation is enough. For others, knowing the quality of the original study or report used to arrive at these conclusions will also be required. For still others, the information will be needed for an emergency so that whatever information is obtained must be gained quickly and be as accurate as possible. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This chapter discusses how to locate different types of information on the toxic effects of chemicals, starting with a discussion on how and where to search for information. It will then identify a number of valuable resources that contain specific types of information (e.g., comprehensive reviews, data banks, and fact sheets). \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Bibliographic databases; \u0000books; \u0000CAS registry numbers; \u0000chemical toxicity information; \u0000comprehensive reviews; \u0000data banks; \u0000fact sheets; \u0000gateways; \u0000Internet; \u0000material safety data sheets; \u0000original research; \u0000organizations; \u0000portals; \u0000relational databases; \u0000resources; \u0000safety data sheets; \u0000sources; \u0000toxicological literature searching; \u0000web searching","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"21 1","pages":"49-66"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82597001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX014.PUB2
C. Rice
Man-made vitreous fibers (MMVF) is a generic descriptor for a group of fibrous materials made from melting inorganic substances such as sand, clay, glass, or slag. Synthetic vitreous fibers (SVF) or man-made synthetic vitreous fibers (MSVF) may also be used to describe these groups of materials. These terms have generally replaced earlier use of man-made mineral fibers (MMMF). MMVF are further classified by the raw material used in production; major categories include glass fibers (glass wool or continuous filament), mineral wool (rock or slag), and refractory ceramic fibers. The latter two types are covered in this chapter; glass fibers are described in Chapter. Within each category, a variety of commercial products have been produced and may be identified by manufacturer and product name and number. Each has a slightly different formulation and characteristics; therefore it is important where possible to identify the particular product number. Dimension, durability, and dose delivered to the target organ are critical factors in the toxicity of MMVF. MMVF are characterized by length (L) and diameter (D). The arithmetic mean or median of the observed distribution of lengths and diameters may be given as the count mean or median diameter (CMD) or length (CML). If the observed values are transformed by taking the natural logarithm of the measured parameters, the geometric mean (GM) of each dimension may be given with a geometric standard deviation (GSD). The size determinations may be made by either scanning (SEM) or transmission (TEM) electron microscopy. TEM has the lower limits of detection by which investigators can characterize fibers with diameters in the nanometer range. Dose by some routes of administration may be further described by the mass of material, for example, in implantation or single bolus injection studies. For inhalation studies, GM and GSD length and diameter are usually listed for the exposure aerosol, and often the number of fibers within specific size ranges are listed. Following inhalation, fibers may be deposited on surfaces within the respiratory tract or exhaled. For the fibers that are deposited, the site of deposition (dose) depends upon the characteristics of the fiber and results from one of five mechanisms: impaction, interception, sedimentation, electrostatic precipitation, or diffusion. The majority of the deposition of MMVF is probably governed by the first three mechanisms. Impaction and interception occur when the fiber is removed from the airstream by physically contacting the surface of the airway or a bifurcation. Sedimentation occurs in the lower airways, where the velocity of the fiber becomes low enough for it to settle on the airway surface. Electrostatic precipitation results when the fiber carries a charge opposite to that of the airway surface; for mineral wool fibers, no reports have been found on surface charge measurements. Deposition due to diffusion requires that the air mol
{"title":"Rock Wool and Refractory Ceramic Fibers","authors":"C. Rice","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX014.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX014.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Man-made vitreous fibers (MMVF) is a generic descriptor for a group of fibrous materials made from melting inorganic substances such as sand, clay, glass, or slag. Synthetic vitreous fibers (SVF) or man-made synthetic vitreous fibers (MSVF) may also be used to describe these groups of materials. These terms have generally replaced earlier use of man-made mineral fibers (MMMF). MMVF are further classified by the raw material used in production; major categories include glass fibers (glass wool or continuous filament), mineral wool (rock or slag), and refractory ceramic fibers. The latter two types are covered in this chapter; glass fibers are described in Chapter. Within each category, a variety of commercial products have been produced and may be identified by manufacturer and product name and number. Each has a slightly different formulation and characteristics; therefore it is important where possible to identify the particular product number. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Dimension, durability, and dose delivered to the target organ are critical factors in the toxicity of MMVF. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000MMVF are characterized by length (L) and diameter (D). The arithmetic mean or median of the observed distribution of lengths and diameters may be given as the count mean or median diameter (CMD) or length (CML). If the observed values are transformed by taking the natural logarithm of the measured parameters, the geometric mean (GM) of each dimension may be given with a geometric standard deviation (GSD). The size determinations may be made by either scanning (SEM) or transmission (TEM) electron microscopy. TEM has the lower limits of detection by which investigators can characterize fibers with diameters in the nanometer range. Dose by some routes of administration may be further described by the mass of material, for example, in implantation or single bolus injection studies. For inhalation studies, GM and GSD length and diameter are usually listed for the exposure aerosol, and often the number of fibers within specific size ranges are listed. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Following inhalation, fibers may be deposited on surfaces within the respiratory tract or exhaled. For the fibers that are deposited, the site of deposition (dose) depends upon the characteristics of the fiber and results from one of five mechanisms: impaction, interception, sedimentation, electrostatic precipitation, or diffusion. The majority of the deposition of MMVF is probably governed by the first three mechanisms. Impaction and interception occur when the fiber is removed from the airstream by physically contacting the surface of the airway or a bifurcation. Sedimentation occurs in the lower airways, where the velocity of the fiber becomes low enough for it to settle on the airway surface. Electrostatic precipitation results when the fiber carries a charge opposite to that of the airway surface; for mineral wool fibers, no reports have been found on surface charge measurements. Deposition due to diffusion requires that the air mol","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"30 1","pages":"273-300"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85679091","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX119
C. Baxter, D. Warshawsky
The class of chemicals described in this section include aromatic hydrocarbons whose molecular structures contain single aromatic rings separated by single chemical bonds from other such rings, or from simple groups containing unsaturated carbon atoms such as vinyl (CHCH2), ethynyl (acetylenyl) (CCH), or allyl (CH2–CHCH2). Aromatic compounds containing multiple aromatic rings sharing one or more sides are not included. These aromatics differ vastly in chemical, physical, and biological properties from the aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, including increased toxicity to humans and other mammals. Of prime importance in this respect is the carcinogenicity of alkenylaromatic hydrocarbons such as styrene. Included in this chapter are (a) alkenylbenzenes such as styrene and allylbenzene, (b) alkynylbenzenes such as phenylacetylene, and (c) di- and terphenyls and triphenylene. These compounds are poorly to moderately reactive under ambient conditions but readily undergo photochemical degradation, for instance in the atmosphere. They generally occur as volatile liquids under normal conditions, but possess lower vapor pressures, volatility, absorbability, and solubility in aqueous media than aliphatic or alicyclic compounds with a similar number of carbon atoms. Higher molecular weight derivatives are volatile solids. These properties contribute to their biological activities. All are also characterized by high lipid solubility, and donor–acceptor and polar interactions. Because of their low surface tension and viscosity, low molecular weight analogs may be aspirated into the lungs during ingestion, where they can cause chemical pneumonitis. These hydrocarbons are widely used as chemical raw materials, intermediates, solvents, in oil and rosin extractions, as components of multipurpose additives, and extensively in the glue and veneer industries because of their rapid drying characteristics. Aromatics serve in the dry-cleaning industry, in the printing and metal processing industries, and for many other similar applications. They are important constituents of aviation and automotive gasolines and represent important raw materials in the preparation of pharmaceutical products. The polyphenyls are obtained as products or by-products in petroleum or coal refining, burning, or pyrolysis. In coke-oven operations, the aromatics are recovered from the gases and the coal tars. In crude oil distillation, they are produced by fractionated distillation, solvent extraction, naphthenic dehydrogenation, alkylation of benzene or alkenes, or from alkanes by catalytic cyclization or aromatizations. These aromatic compounds are primary skin irritants, and repeated or prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis and corneal irritation and damage. Direct aerosol deposition or contact from ingestion and subsequent aspiration can cause severe pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, and hemorrhage. These hydrocarbons are absorbed rapidly and cause local ir
{"title":"Styrene, Polyphenyls, and Related Compounds","authors":"C. Baxter, D. Warshawsky","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX119","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX119","url":null,"abstract":"The class of chemicals described in this section include aromatic hydrocarbons whose molecular structures contain single aromatic rings separated by single chemical bonds from other such rings, or from simple groups containing unsaturated carbon atoms such as vinyl (CHCH2), ethynyl (acetylenyl) (CCH), or allyl (CH2–CHCH2). Aromatic compounds containing multiple aromatic rings sharing one or more sides are not included. These aromatics differ vastly in chemical, physical, and biological properties from the aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, including increased toxicity to humans and other mammals. Of prime importance in this respect is the carcinogenicity of alkenylaromatic hydrocarbons such as styrene. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Included in this chapter are (a) alkenylbenzenes such as styrene and allylbenzene, (b) alkynylbenzenes such as phenylacetylene, and (c) di- and terphenyls and triphenylene. These compounds are poorly to moderately reactive under ambient conditions but readily undergo photochemical degradation, for instance in the atmosphere. They generally occur as volatile liquids under normal conditions, but possess lower vapor pressures, volatility, absorbability, and solubility in aqueous media than aliphatic or alicyclic compounds with a similar number of carbon atoms. Higher molecular weight derivatives are volatile solids. These properties contribute to their biological activities. All are also characterized by high lipid solubility, and donor–acceptor and polar interactions. Because of their low surface tension and viscosity, low molecular weight analogs may be aspirated into the lungs during ingestion, where they can cause chemical pneumonitis. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000These hydrocarbons are widely used as chemical raw materials, intermediates, solvents, in oil and rosin extractions, as components of multipurpose additives, and extensively in the glue and veneer industries because of their rapid drying characteristics. Aromatics serve in the dry-cleaning industry, in the printing and metal processing industries, and for many other similar applications. They are important constituents of aviation and automotive gasolines and represent important raw materials in the preparation of pharmaceutical products. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The polyphenyls are obtained as products or by-products in petroleum or coal refining, burning, or pyrolysis. In coke-oven operations, the aromatics are recovered from the gases and the coal tars. In crude oil distillation, they are produced by fractionated distillation, solvent extraction, naphthenic dehydrogenation, alkylation of benzene or alkenes, or from alkanes by catalytic cyclization or aromatizations. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000These aromatic compounds are primary skin irritants, and repeated or prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis and corneal irritation and damage. Direct aerosol deposition or contact from ingestion and subsequent aspiration can cause severe pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, and hemorrhage. These hydrocarbons are absorbed rapidly and cause local ir","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"15 1","pages":"1-22"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74416175","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX064.PUB2
F. Belpoggi, D. Chiozzotto, M. Lauriola
This chapter contains details on 12 unsaturated halogenated hydrocarbons. The considered chemicals are 1,3-dichloropropene, cis- and trans-1,2-dichloroethylene, dichloroacetylene, allyl chloride, hexachlorobutadiene, β-chloropropene, vinylidene chloride, vinyl chloride, vinyl bromide, vinyl fluoride, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene. These compounds are used as fumigants, pesticides, solvents, and chemical intermediates. This chapter follows the outline determined for compounds and includes physical and chemical properties, production and use, exposure assessment, toxic effects (experimental animal and epidemiology studies), standards, regulations, and guidelines, and studies on environmental impact. Keywords: allyl chloride; β-chloroprene; dichloroacetylene; 1,2-dichloroethylene; 1,3-dichloropropene; hexachlorobutadiene; tetrachloroethylene; trichloroethylene; toxicity; vinyl bromide; vinyl chloride; vinyl fluoride; vinylidene chloride
{"title":"Unsaturated Halogenated Hydrocarbons","authors":"F. Belpoggi, D. Chiozzotto, M. Lauriola","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX064.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX064.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter contains details on 12 unsaturated halogenated hydrocarbons. The considered chemicals are 1,3-dichloropropene, cis- and trans-1,2-dichloroethylene, dichloroacetylene, allyl chloride, hexachlorobutadiene, β-chloropropene, vinylidene chloride, vinyl chloride, vinyl bromide, vinyl fluoride, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene. These compounds are used as fumigants, pesticides, solvents, and chemical intermediates. This chapter follows the outline determined for compounds and includes physical and chemical properties, production and use, exposure assessment, toxic effects (experimental animal and epidemiology studies), standards, regulations, and guidelines, and studies on environmental impact. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000allyl chloride; \u0000β-chloroprene; \u0000dichloroacetylene; \u00001,2-dichloroethylene; \u00001,3-dichloropropene; \u0000hexachlorobutadiene; \u0000tetrachloroethylene; \u0000trichloroethylene; \u0000toxicity; \u0000vinyl bromide; \u0000vinyl chloride; \u0000vinyl fluoride; \u0000vinylidene chloride","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"31 1","pages":"129-229"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80004256","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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