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Polyurethanes, Miscellaneous Organic Polymers, and Silicones 采购产品聚氨酯,杂项有机聚合物,和有机硅
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX093.PUB2
S. Cragg
The toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter may be generally attributed to the residual monomers, catalysts, and other additives present rather than the polymer per se. The cured polymer itself may be of high molecular weight and, consequently, more or less toxicologically inert. Carefully manufactured, highly refined polymers contain few residual toxic chemicals. However, some of the polymers discussed in this chapter, at least in some applications, go through an intermediate stage consisting of “prepolymers” (sometimes referred to as “resins”) that react further to achieve their final, cured form. An example is a polyurethane system for making foam cushions. To manufacture polyurethane foam for cushions, workers combine diisocyanate molecules with a polyol prepolymer. Such “systems” inherently have more potential for exposure of workers if not the general public to toxic monomers or other reactive chemicals. The exposure potential of glues, paints, and coatings may extend more broadly to the consumer. Thus, examination of the toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter focuses on monomers and prepolymers. This is not always so. Some of polymers in this chapter are used in biomedical devices or in a way that puts them in intimate contact with humans. Here, the issue of biodegradation becomes important because of potential toxicity from breakdown products of the polymer, or rejection may ensue if the polymer is incompatible with the surrounding tissues. Keywords: Polyurethanes; Foams; Elastomers; Coating adhesives; Fibers; Combustion toxicity; Amino plastics; Phenol-formaldehyde resins; Urea-formaldehyde; Melamine-formaldehyde; Furan polymers; Polybenzimidazole; Silicone elastomers
本章讨论的聚合物的毒性通常归因于残留的单体、催化剂和其他添加剂,而不是聚合物本身。固化聚合物本身可能具有高分子量,因此或多或少具有毒性惰性。精心制造,高度精炼的聚合物含有很少残留的有毒化学物质。然而,本章中讨论的一些聚合物,至少在某些应用中,要经过一个由“预聚物”(有时称为“树脂”)组成的中间阶段,这些预聚物进一步反应以达到最终的固化形式。一个例子是用于制造泡沫垫的聚氨酯系统。为了制造用于坐垫的聚氨酯泡沫,工人们将二异氰酸酯分子与多元醇预聚物结合在一起。这种“系统”本身就更有可能使工人接触到有毒单体或其他反应性化学物质,如果不是普通公众的话。胶水、油漆和涂料的潜在暴露范围可能会扩大到更广泛的消费者。因此,本章所讨论的聚合物毒性的检查主要集中在单体和预聚体上。但情况并非总是如此。本章中的一些聚合物用于生物医学设备或与人类密切接触的方式。在这里,生物降解问题变得很重要,因为聚合物分解产物的潜在毒性,或者如果聚合物与周围组织不相容,可能会发生排斥反应。关键词:聚氨酯;泡沫;弹性体;涂料粘合剂;纤维;燃烧毒性;氨基塑料;酚醛树脂;脲醛;三聚氰胺甲醛;呋喃聚合物;聚苯并咪唑;有机硅弹性体
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引用次数: 3
Alkylpyridines and Miscellaneous Organic Nitrogen Compounds 烷基吡啶和其他有机氮化合物
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.tox060.pub2
D. G. L. J. K. Ms
This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59. Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds. Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones; the substituted uracil herbicides—bromacil, lenacil, and terbacil; the quaternary herbicides–paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines—atrazine and propazine; and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine. Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce. Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide, are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment. Other than the pyridine series of chemicals and the nitroso compounds, most of the chemicals reviewed here include significant new information since the last chapter review. Keywords: Alkylpyridines; aquatic toxicity; dimethylacetamide; dimethylformamide; genetic toxicity; herbicides; hydrazines; industrial solvents; nitrosamines; pesticides
本章涵盖了结构中含有一个或多个氮原子的其他脂肪族和芳香族化合物,并延续了第59章所讨论的内容。吡啶和它的许多修饰结构被描述,因为它们是许多工业化合物的主干。包括几种杀虫剂和除草剂及其前体:吡啶乙硫酮;取代的尿嘧啶类除草剂——溴丙酸、lenacil和terbacil;第四季除草剂——百草枯、双菊枯和异氰菊枯;s-三嗪-阿特拉津和丙嗪;以及其他三嗪类除草剂,如阿梅特林、丙咪嗪和辛马嗪。简单的氮化合物,如叠氮化物,亚硝胺和肼被描述,因为它们可以产生重要的毒理学作用。最后,包括两种重要的工业溶剂,二甲基乙酰胺和二甲基甲酰胺,因为它们具有悠久的使用历史,并在职业环境中得到了很好的研究。除了吡啶系列化学物质和亚硝基化合物外,这里回顾的大多数化学物质都包含了上一章回顾以来的重要新信息。关键词:Alkylpyridines;水生动物毒性;二甲基乙酰胺;二甲基甲酰胺;遗传毒性;除草剂;肼;工业溶剂;亚硝胺;农药
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引用次数: 2
Cold Stress: Effects on Performance and Health 冷应激:对性能和健康的影响
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX097.PUB2
I. Holmér, J. Hassi, T. Ikäheimo, J. Jaakkola
The present chapter is intended to provide an overview of cold stress and strain not only on workers in cold workplaces, but also on people in general exposed to cold climate. Human adaptation to cold can be either acquired or inherited and occurs through acclimatization. The pattern of cold adaptation is dependent on the type (air, water) and intensity (continuous, intermittent) of the cold exposure. It has been reported that cold exposure and cooling can have profound effects on physical and cognitive performance. The majority of scientific reports related to health consequences of cold weather are on acute health changes. The study finds that total mortality among most populations is highest in winter and lowest in summer. Regulations or standards defining acceptable cold stress situations rely on one or a combination of approaches to control cold stress. Most prevalent national or international exposure guidelines have been provided comprehensively. Keywords: clothing; frostbite; hand-arm vibration syndrome; hypothermia; solar radiation; wind chill temperature; cold mortality; cold morbidity
本章旨在提供冷应激和应变的概述,不仅对工人在寒冷的工作场所,而且对一般暴露于寒冷气候的人。人类对寒冷的适应可以是后天的,也可以是遗传的。冷适应的模式取决于冷暴露的类型(空气、水)和强度(连续、间歇)。据报道,寒冷暴露和冷却会对身体和认知表现产生深远的影响。大多数关于寒冷天气对健康影响的科学报告都是关于急性健康变化的。研究发现,大多数种群的总死亡率在冬季最高,在夏季最低。定义可接受的冷应激情况的法规或标准依赖于控制冷应激的一种或几种方法的组合。最普遍的国家或国际接触准则已经全面提供。关键词:服装;冻伤的;手臂振动综合征;体温过低;太阳辐射;风寒温度;寒冷的死亡率;寒冷的发病率
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引用次数: 21
Infrared, Visible, and Ultraviolet Radiation 红外线,可见光和紫外线辐射
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX102.PUB2
D. Sliney, Maurice Bitran, W. Murray
Sir William Herschel's discovery of “obscure rays,” extending beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, launched the exploration of the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible range in the year 1800. The following year Johann Ritter demonstrated that invisible rays beyond the violet end of the spectrum are capable of chemical action. These three adjacent portions of the electromagnetic spectrum: infrared (IR), visible (vis), and ultraviolet (UV) are collectively known as optical radiation. Although infrared and ultraviolet radiations are invisible to the human eye, they are considered to be “optical” because they share some propagation and interaction characteristics with visible. As does the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum, optical radiation obeys the laws of electrodynamics and can be described both as electromagnetic waves and as energy corpuscles. All known electromagnetic radiations are customarily arranged monotonically according to their energy in a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum spans many orders of magnitude in energy and, correspondingly, in frequency and wavelength. The optical radiation range is located between microwave radiation and X-rays. The optical radiation range is composed, in order of increasing energy, of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet radiation. Although there are no sharp, well-defined boundaries in the electromagnetic spectrum, the optical radiation range is conventionally defined as extending from 1 mm at the bottom end of the infrared to 100 nm at the upper end of the ultraviolet. The optical range is divided as follows: Ultraviolet 100–400 nm Light 380–400 to 760–780 nm Infrared 760–780 nm to 1 mm The reason for the “fuzzy” boundaries for the visible range is that they are defined by the physiological process of vision, which has some intrinsic variability. The main mechanisms that produce optical radiation are incandescence, electrical discharge, and lasing. The wavelengths in the optical radiation range have limited penetration into the human body. Therefore, the main organs affected by optical radiation are the skin and the eyes, although systemic effects have also been identified. Evolving in an environment where the sun is the main source of optical radiation, humans have developed adaptive characteristics, such as skin pigmentation, a hairy scalp, receded eyes, and aversion responses to bright lights and to excessive heat. These characteristics, however, provide only partial protection against optical radiation. Optical radiation can act on biological tissue through thermal and photochemical processes. The extent of damage depends on the intensity of the radiation, the wavelength, the exposure time, and the optical and physiological characteristics of the tissue exposed. The variability in biological effectiveness of different wavelengths (three orders of magnitude within the ultraviolet ran
1800年,威廉·赫歇尔爵士发现了可见光谱红端之外的“暗射线”,开启了对可见光谱外电磁波谱的探索。第二年,约翰·里特证明了光谱紫色末端以外的不可见射线能够发生化学作用。电磁波谱的这三个相邻部分:红外线(IR)、可见光(vis)和紫外线(UV)统称为光辐射。虽然红外线和紫外线对人眼来说是不可见的,但它们被认为是“光学的”,因为它们与可见光具有某些传播和相互作用特性。和其他的电磁波谱一样,光辐射也遵循电动力学定律,既可以被描述为电磁波,也可以被描述为能量微粒。所有已知的电磁辐射习惯上都是按照它们的能量单调地排列在一个称为电磁波谱的连续体中。电磁波谱在能量上跨越了许多数量级,相应地,在频率和波长上也跨越了许多数量级。光辐射范围介于微波辐射和x射线之间。光辐射范围按能量递增的顺序由红外线、可见光和紫外线组成。虽然在电磁波谱中没有明确的边界,但通常将光辐射范围定义为从红外线底部的1毫米延伸到紫外线上端的100纳米。可见光范围划分如下:紫外100 - 400nm光380-400至760 - 780nm红外760 - 780nm至1mm可见范围边界“模糊”的原因是它们是由视觉的生理过程定义的,具有一定的内在可变性。产生光辐射的主要机制是白炽、放电和激光。光辐射范围内的波长对人体的穿透是有限的。因此,受光辐射影响的主要器官是皮肤和眼睛,尽管也发现了全身影响。在太阳是光辐射的主要来源的环境中进化,人类已经发展出适应性特征,如皮肤色素沉着,头皮多毛,眼睛萎缩,对强光和过热的厌恶反应。然而,这些特性只能提供部分的防光辐射保护。光辐射可以通过热和光化学过程作用于生物组织。损伤的程度取决于辐射的强度、波长、照射时间以及被照射组织的光学和生理特性。不同波长(紫外线范围内的三个数量级)在生物有效性方面的可变性尤其引人注目。这导致了“生物有效”量的定义,这是通过使用生物光谱有效性函数获得的。眼睛和皮肤都有受到光辐射急性和慢性损伤的危险。眼介质将可见光和近红外辐射传输到视网膜,但大多数紫外线和远红外辐射被角膜和晶状体吸收。皮肤的反应很大程度上取决于它的反照率和色素沉着。关键词:可见光;紫外线;红外;电磁波谱;光学辐射;量;单位;相互作用;生物效应;特征;眼部效果;真皮效果;繁殖;季节性;情感障碍;标准;曝光的指导方针;视网膜的危险;接触;视网膜的危险
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引用次数: 4
Regulations and Guidelines for Toxic Exposures in the Workplace 工作场所接触有毒物质的条例和准则
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX008.PUB2
C. Monforton
Occupational diseases can serve as the sentinel warnings about the hazards of toxic substances. Regulations and guidelines to control workers' exposure to toxic substances have been influenced by larger social forces, which may have enhanced or impeded the degree of protection provided. Toxicological and epidemiological research and technological developments provide the rationale and the methodologies used to develop legislation, regulations, and guidelines to reduce occupational exposure to toxins. Most regulations and standards for worker protection have training requirements to increase employees' understanding of workplace hazards. These complement the engineering and administrative controls implemented by the affected employers. In the U.S., many industries fall under the authority of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, but some are also required to comply with worker-safety regulations issued by other agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, Nuclear Regulatory Commission or Department of Transportation. A brief description of workplace standards and occupational exposure limits for selected countries are presented. Keywords: Environmental Protection Agency; Occupational Safety and Health Administration; material safety data sheets; recommended exposure limits; threshold limit values
职业病可以作为有毒物质危害的前哨警示。控制工人接触有毒物质的条例和准则受到较大社会力量的影响,这可能加强或阻碍了所提供保护的程度。毒理学和流行病学研究以及技术发展为制定减少职业接触毒素的立法、条例和准则提供了依据和方法。大多数工人保护法规和标准都有培训要求,以增加员工对工作场所危害的了解。这些措施补充了受影响雇主实施的工程和行政控制措施。在美国,许多行业属于职业安全与健康管理局(Occupational Safety and Health Administration)的管辖范围,但有些行业也需要遵守其他机构发布的工人安全法规,如环境保护局(Environmental Protection Agency)、核管理委员会(Nuclear Regulatory Commission)或交通部(Department of Transportation)。简要介绍了选定国家的工作场所标准和职业接触限值。关键词:环保局;职业安全与健康管理局;材料安全数据表;建议接触限度;阈值限制值
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引用次数: 0
Smoke and Combustion Products 烟雾和燃烧产物
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX108.PUB2
C. Baxter
Exposure to smoke and complex combustion products is a major source of death and disease in two major populations: residents of burning structures and firefighters attempting to extinguish them. Seventy-six percent of the people that died in fires in their residential structures in 1990 died from the inhalation of toxic combustion products, not from burns (J. R. Hall and B. Harwood, Smoke or burns—which is deadlier? NFPA J., 38–43 (1995)). This percentage has been rising by about one percentage point per year since 1979. Although total deaths in fires are declining, the percentage attributed to smoke inhalation has increased. The majority of deaths and chronic diseases in residential firefighters have also been attributed to smoke exposure (T. L. Guidotti, Occupational mortality among firefighters: assessing the association. J. Occup. Environ. Med., 37, 1348–1359 (1995)). The area of research termed combustion toxicity has evolved to study the adverse health effects caused by smoke or fire atmospheres. According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), smoke consists of “the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion” (Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.07, E176, ASTM, 1996, pp. 496–500) and therefore, includes combustion products. In this chapter, a fire atmosphere is defined as all the effluents generated by the thermal decomposition of materials or products regardless of whether that effluent is produced under smoldering, nonflaming, or flaming conditions. The objectives of combustion toxicity research are to identify potentially harmful products from the thermal degradation of materials, to determine the best measurement methods for the identification of the toxicants as well as the degree of toxicity, to determine the effect of different fire exposures on the composition of the toxic combustion products, to predict the toxicity of the combustion atmospheres based on the concentrations and the interaction of the toxic products, and to establish the physiological effects of such products on living organisms. The ultimate goals of this field of research are to reduce human fire fatalities due to smoke inhalation, to determine effective treatments for survivors, and to prevent unnecessary suffering from cancer and other adverse health outcomes caused by smoke inhalation. Other reviews of various aspects of this subject can be found in the following references: B. C. Levin, Combustion toxicology, in P. Wexler, ed., Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Vol. 1, Academic Press, San Diego, 1998, pp. 360–374. G. L. Nelson, ed., Fire and Polymers II: Materials and Tests for Hazard Prevention, ACS Symposium Series 599, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1995. National Research Council and National Materials Advisory Board, Fire- and Smoke-Resistant Interior Materials for Commercial Transport Aircraft, Publication Number NMAB-477-1, National Acade
接触烟雾和复杂的燃烧产物是两个主要人群死亡和疾病的主要来源:燃烧建筑物的居民和试图扑灭它们的消防员。1990年,76%死于住宅火灾的人死于吸入有毒燃烧产物,而不是死于烧伤(J. R. Hall和B. Harwood,《烟雾还是烧伤——哪个更致命?》)。林业杂志,38-43(1995))。自1979年以来,这一比例以每年约一个百分点的速度上升。虽然火灾造成的总死亡人数在下降,但吸入烟雾造成的死亡人数比例有所上升。居住消防员的大多数死亡和慢性疾病也归因于烟雾暴露(T. L. Guidotti,消防员的职业死亡率:评估相关性)。j . Occup。环绕。医学杂志,37,1348-1359(1995))。燃烧毒性的研究领域已经发展到研究烟雾或火焰环境对健康造成的不利影响。根据美国材料试验协会(ASTM)的规定,烟雾由“材料在热解或燃烧过程中产生的空气中的固体和液体微粒和气体”(ASTM标准年鉴,Vol. 04.07, E176, ASTM, 1996, pp. 496-500)组成,因此也包括燃烧产物。在本章中,火灾气氛被定义为材料或产品热分解产生的所有流出物,无论该流出物是在阴燃、非燃烧或燃烧条件下产生的。燃烧毒性研究的目标是识别材料热降解产生的潜在有害产物,确定识别有毒物质及其毒性程度的最佳测量方法,确定不同火灾暴露对有毒燃烧产物组成的影响,根据有毒产物的浓度和相互作用预测燃烧气氛的毒性。并确定这些产品对生物体的生理作用。这一研究领域的最终目标是减少因吸入烟雾造成的火灾死亡人数,确定对幸存者的有效治疗方法,并防止因吸入烟雾造成的不必要的癌症和其他不良健康后果。其他关于这个主题的不同方面的评论可以在以下参考文献中找到:b.c. Levin,燃烧毒理学,P. weexler编辑,毒理学百科全书,第一卷,学术出版社,圣地亚哥,1998年,第360-374页。G. L. Nelson,主编,火灾和聚合物II:材料和危险预防测试,ACS研讨会系列599,美国化学学会,华盛顿特区,1995。国家研究委员会和国家材料咨询委员会,《商用运输机防火和耐烟内饰材料》,出版编号NMAB-477-1,国家科学院出版社,华盛顿特区,1995年。D. Purser,烟雾毒性,在国家研究委员会和国家材料咨询委员会,商用飞机内饰的改进防火和耐烟材料:会议记录,出版编号NMAB-477-2,国家学院出版社,华盛顿特区,1995年,第175-195页。B. C. Levin,毒理学的新研究途径:7-气体n -气体模型,毒理学抑制剂和遗传毒理学。毒理学115,89-106(1996)。关键词:燃烧;火灾死亡;消防队员;火灾隐患;火灾风险;微粒;预测模型;烟雾;抑制剂;测试方法;有毒气体;毒性的评估;毒效
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引用次数: 2
Aromatic Nitro and Amino Compounds 芳香硝基和氨基化合物
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX057.PUB2
E. Bingham, William L. McGowan
Logically, aromatic nitro and amino compounds should be discussed together because their toxic responses are often similar due to a common metabolic intermediate. Synthetically, amines are generally derived from nitro compounds, but in some cases nitro compounds can be prepared through amines when other methods fail to afford specific compounds. There are good and bad attributes to these types of compounds. Some act as sensitizers and contingent on physical properties may be absorbed through the skin or mucous membranes. They may also cause methemoglobinemia, depending on such factors as the structure and the particular organism. Some members of this class are known as animal and human carcinogens; for humans, the urinary bladder is the most prominent target organ. Nevertheless, these compounds and their derivatives have enlivened our world through their use as dyestuff intermediates or as photographic chemicals, they alleviate pain as components of widely used analgesics, and they cushion or insulate us through their use in flexible and rigid foams. Other important uses include production of pesticides, including herbicides and fungicides, as ingredients in adhesives, paints and coatings, antioxidants, explosives, optical brighteners, rubber ingredients, and as intermediates in many other products. Keywords: Air pollutants; aromatic amino compounds; aromatic nitro compounds; bladder cancer; chloro compounds; databases; inventories
从逻辑上讲,芳香硝基和氨基化合物应该一起讨论,因为它们的毒性反应往往相似,因为它们有共同的代谢中间体。合成上,胺通常由硝基化合物衍生而来,但在某些情况下,当其他方法无法提供特定化合物时,可以通过胺制备硝基化合物。这类化合物有好有坏。有些作为致敏剂,根据物理性质可通过皮肤或粘膜吸收。它们也可能引起高铁血红蛋白血症,这取决于结构和特定生物体等因素。这一类的一些成员被称为动物和人类致癌物;对于人类来说,膀胱是最突出的靶器官。然而,这些化合物及其衍生物通过作为染料中间体或照相化学品的使用,使我们的世界活跃起来;它们作为广泛使用的止痛剂的成分减轻了疼痛;它们通过使用柔性和刚性泡沫来缓冲或隔离我们。其他重要用途包括生产杀虫剂,包括除草剂和杀菌剂,作为粘合剂、油漆和涂料、抗氧化剂、爆炸物、光学增白剂、橡胶成分的成分,以及作为许多其他产品的中间体。关键词:大气污染物;芳香氨基化合物;芳香硝基化合物;膀胱癌;氯化合物;数据库;库存
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引用次数: 14
Saturated Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Two to Four Carbons 饱和卤代脂肪烃,二到四碳
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX063.PUB2
J. B. Reid, C. Muianga
This chapter relies extensively on information provided in earlier editions. Several online databases were utilized in searching for recent information in preparing the chapter. These included NTP (National Toxicology Program), IRIS (Integrated Risk Information Service), and the ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) websites. Most recent information was sought through MEDLINE and when possible the original articles were reviewed. Debatably, IRIS was considered to be the last word with regard to cancer. Many of the compounds have been recently reviewed by the ATSDR and are reported in their toxicological profiles. Recent reviews were utilized in preparing this chapter. In addition, the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards and the ACGIH's TLV's® for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents: 2011 (CD) were utilized. Keywords: ethylene chloride; metabolic disposition; 1,1-dichloroethane; ethylene dichloride; methyl chloroform; 1,1,2-trichlorethane; 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane; pentachloroethane; hexachloroethane; propyl chloride; isopropyl chloride; ethyl bromide; ethylene dibromide; 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane
本章广泛地依赖于早期版本中提供的信息。在编写本章时,利用了几个联机数据库查找最近的资料。这些网站包括NTP(国家毒理学计划)、IRIS(综合风险信息服务)和ATSDR(有毒物质和疾病登记处)网站。最新的信息是通过MEDLINE搜索的,并且在可能的情况下对原始文章进行了审查。有争议的是,IRIS被认为是关于癌症的最后定论。许多化合物最近已由ATSDR审查,并在其毒理学概况中进行了报告。在编写本章时利用了最近的审查。此外,还使用了NIOSH《化学危害袖珍指南》和ACGIH《化学物质和物理制剂TLV®:2011》(CD)。关键词:氯乙烯;代谢的性格;1、1-dichloroethane;二氯化乙烯;甲基氯仿;1,1, 2-trichlorethane;1, 1, 2, 2-tetrachloroethane;五氯乙烷;六氯乙烷;丙基氯;异丙基氯;乙基溴化;二溴化乙烯;1, 1, 2, 2-tetrabromoethane
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引用次数: 2
Occupational Chemical Carcinogenesis 职业性化学致癌
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX004.PUB2
J. Huff, R. Melnick
Cancer is not a single disease, but rather is a general term applied to a multitude of diseases and stages of disease, each of clonal origin, that elicit uncontrollable tissue growth. There are more than 100 different types of cancer. In normal tissue the balance between cell reproduction and cell death determines the ultimate size of an organ. This balance is clearly represented after partial hepatectomy where, following removal of as much as two-thirds of the liver, regeneration results in restoration of the liver to its original size. If a normal cell incurs a defect in its growth regulating processes and acquires a growth advantage over other cells in a particular tissue or organ, it may multiply out of control producing a mass of altered cells; this abnormal overgrowth of new tissue is called a tumor or neoplasm. The multistep process of carcinogenesis is thought to involve at least four stages: (1) initiation—the induction of a heritable change in a cell resulting from DNA damage (from endogenous processes or by a DNA reactive environmental agent or its metabolites) that can lead to point mutations, insertions, deletions, or chromosomal aberrations; (2) promotion—the clonal expansion of the initiated cell population; (3) progression—the process whereby benign neoplasms become malignant, as a consequence of increased genomic instability in neoplastic cells that gives rise to additional genetic alterations (i.e., mutations, chromosomal deletions, and/or rearrangements), and (4) metastasis—the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body. With increasing knowledge of the number of genes altered in human cancers, it is evident that even a four-stage model is not adequate to describe the carcinogenic process. Two groups of genes control normal tissue growth; protooncogenes promote growth while suppressor genes halt growth. Normal protooncogenes of which there are 300–400 within the human genome regulate cell division and differentiation. If a protooncogene is mutated it may become an activated oncogene that causes the normal regulated cycling pattern of the affected cell to proceed out of control. Most tumors are defined by their cell of origin and their behavior or appearance. Benign neoplasms of epithelial origin are referred to as adenomas or papillomas, and benign neoplasms of mesenchymal origin are referred to as fibromas, osteoma, gliomas, etc. Malignant tumors of epithelial cells are carcinomas, and malignant tumors of mesenchymal tissues are sarcomas. Environmental insults, including ionizing or UV radiation, certain viruses, or various chemical agents can cause genetic damage that converts protooncogenes to oncogenes or inactivates tumor suppressor genes. The simplest definition of a carcinogen is an agent that can cause cancer. However, identifying an agent as a human carcinogen and assessing human risk associated with environmental or occupational exposure is complicated because of the multitude of
来自这些来源的数据表明,致癌物可能通过非常不同的机制起作用(例如,直接作用或需要代谢激活;基因毒性或非基因毒性),致癌物质导致人类癌症的可能性是不相等的。此外,大多数致癌物是通过多种机制共同作用的,这些机制在不同的靶组织中可能有所不同。因此,对人类致癌物的鉴定,特别是对与接触这类物质有关的人类风险的特征,一直存在许多争论。本章使用“风险”一词来表示由于某种特定的接触而患癌症的可能性。由于大多数已知的人类致癌物在经过充分测试后对动物也具有致癌性,国际癌症研究机构认为,除非在人类身上有令人信服的相反数据,否则“从生物学上讲,把在实验动物身上有充分致癌性证据的物质和混合物视为对人类具有致癌风险是合理和谨慎的。”个体对某种致癌物的相似暴露可能有不同的反应。暴露人群中个体发生癌症的可能性取决于外部因素,包括暴露的强度、途径、频率和持续时间,以及宿主因素,包括年龄、性别、健康、营养状况和遗传特征。因此,本章回顾了与确定致癌物质和影响人类风险的因素有关的问题。我们还提供了IARC和国家毒理学计划(NTP)确定为“已知”人类致癌物或“可能/合理预期”人类致癌物的最新情况,以及职业安全与健康管理局(OSHA)制定的暴露标准,以减少工人接触这些致癌物。关键词:癌症危害识别;卫生法律;致癌物质;癌症流行病学;癌症易感性;实验性癌症方法;案例研究;IARC的分类;国家结核控制规划分类;OSHA工作场所标准
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引用次数: 0
Aliphatic and Aromatic Nitrogen Compounds 脂肪族和芳香族氮化合物
Pub Date : 2012-08-17 DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX059.PUB2
G. Kennedy
This chapter covers both aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures. Only a small number of the nitrogen-containing compounds that could be considered will be reviewed here mainly based on their uses in industry. This is an update of a previous chapter and for each chemical, the first sentence will tell the reader whether there has been significant new information published in the literature and included or whether there has been little or no new information available for update and inclusion. Three-membered rings discussed are ethyleneimine, propyleneimine, and, one polyfunctional derivative, triethylenemelamine. Toxicologists, chemists, and biologists have always been interested in ethyleneimine and its derivatives because they are reactive, are useful at relatively low doses, and are moderately to highly toxic. Ethyleneimines are classic alkylating agents and have toxicological effects similar to nitrogen mustards. Monofunctional derivatives of ethyleneimine are less potent in producing the characteristic toxicity of the group than the derivatives that have two or more ethyleneimine groups. Finally, polymers of ethyleneimine and its derivatives have shown a relatively low order of toxicity. Six simple nitrogen mustards (β-chloroethylamines) are also covered in this chapter. They are all tertiary amines in which the halogen atom and the amine portion have reactivities similar to the alkyl halides and alkyl amines. They have no significant industrial uses in the United States, but they are used in medicine as “antineoplastic agents” and in treating some nonmalignant diseases. Representative nitrogen-containing chemicals that have five-membered rings (pyrrolidine, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone) and six-membered rings (piperidine, piperazine, morpholine, and hexamethylenetetramine) are also discussed in this chapter in some detail. Several representative aromatic nitrogen compounds are covered—pyrrole, aminotriazole, N-sulfenyl phthalimide fungicides, benzimidazole fungicides, and 1-H-benzotriazole. The data presented for compounds of this class that are used in agriculture include toxicology studies that have been published in the open literature as well as those available through company files to support governmental registration. In some cases, the high toxicity of the agent has been considered and is the reason for its inclusion here, rather than usage volume or industrial importance. Further, very little pharmacological information is presented because this is adequately covered in the pharmacological literature. We have tried to minimize hypotheses regarding the mechanism of action not because it is unimportant, but because the biochemistries are often very detailed, are almost always fairly speculative, and are presented comprehensively in other texts. Likewise, we resisted the temptation to employ structure–activity relationships because, although the database
本章涵盖了脂肪族和芳香族化合物,在它们的结构中含有一个或多个氮原子。本文将主要根据其在工业中的用途,对可以考虑的少量含氮化合物进行综述。这是上一章的更新,对于每种化学物质,第一句话将告诉读者是否有重要的新信息发表在文献中并包括在内,或者是否有很少或没有新的信息可供更新和包括。所讨论的三元环是乙基亚胺、丙基亚胺和一种多官能衍生物三乙基胺。毒理学家、化学家和生物学家一直对亚胺及其衍生物感兴趣,因为它们具有反应性,在相对低剂量下有用,并且具有中等到高度毒性。亚胺是典型的烷基化剂,具有类似于氮芥的毒理学效应。与具有两个或两个以上亚胺基团的衍生物相比,单官能团的亚胺衍生物在产生该组的特征毒性方面的效力较弱。最后,乙烯亚胺聚合物及其衍生物显示出相对较低的毒性。六种简单的氮芥菜(β-氯乙胺)也包括在本章中。它们都是叔胺,其中卤素原子和胺部分具有类似于烷基卤化物和烷基胺的反应活性。它们在美国没有重要的工业用途,但它们在医学上被用作“抗肿瘤剂”和治疗一些非恶性疾病。本章还详细讨论了具有代表性的五元环含氮化学物质(吡咯烷、n-甲基-2-吡咯烷酮)和六元环含氮化学物质(哌啶、哌嗪、morpholine和六亚甲基四胺)。几种具有代表性的芳香氮化合物有:吡咯、氨基三唑、n -亚砜基邻苯二胺类杀菌剂、苯并咪唑类杀菌剂和1- h -苯并三唑类。这类用于农业的化合物的数据包括已在公开文献中发表的毒理学研究,以及通过公司文件支持政府注册的数据。在某些情况下,已考虑到该剂的高毒性,这是其列入本文的原因,而不是使用量或工业重要性。此外,很少药理学信息被提出,因为这是充分覆盖在药理学文献。我们试图尽量减少关于作用机制的假设,不是因为它不重要,而是因为生物化学通常非常详细,几乎总是相当投机,并且在其他文本中全面介绍。同样,我们抵制了采用结构-活性关系的诱惑,因为尽管数据库对某些化学物质非常全面,但它没有包含足够的具有已知可比较毒性特征的类似化学物质。关键词:脂肪族氮化合物;芳香族氮化合物;吖丙啶;杀真菌剂;诱变
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引用次数: 2
期刊
Patty's Toxicology
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