Patty's Toxicology最新文献

{"title":"Polyurethanes, Miscellaneous Organic Polymers, and Silicones","authors":"S. Cragg","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX093.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX093.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter may be generally attributed to the residual monomers, catalysts, and other additives present rather than the polymer per se. The cured polymer itself may be of high molecular weight and, consequently, more or less toxicologically inert. Carefully manufactured, highly refined polymers contain few residual toxic chemicals. However, some of the polymers discussed in this chapter, at least in some applications, go through an intermediate stage consisting of “prepolymers” (sometimes referred to as “resins”) that react further to achieve their final, cured form. An example is a polyurethane system for making foam cushions. To manufacture polyurethane foam for cushions, workers combine diisocyanate molecules with a polyol prepolymer. Such “systems” inherently have more potential for exposure of workers if not the general public to toxic monomers or other reactive chemicals. The exposure potential of glues, paints, and coatings may extend more broadly to the consumer. Thus, examination of the toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter focuses on monomers and prepolymers. This is not always so. Some of polymers in this chapter are used in biomedical devices or in a way that puts them in intimate contact with humans. Here, the issue of biodegradation becomes important because of potential toxicity from breakdown products of the polymer, or rejection may ensue if the polymer is incompatible with the surrounding tissues. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Polyurethanes; \u0000Foams; \u0000Elastomers; \u0000Coating adhesives; \u0000Fibers; \u0000Combustion toxicity; \u0000Amino plastics; \u0000Phenol-formaldehyde resins; \u0000Urea-formaldehyde; \u0000Melamine-formaldehyde; \u0000Furan polymers; \u0000Polybenzimidazole; \u0000Silicone elastomers","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"11 1","pages":"999-1038"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87343025","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Regulations and Guidelines for Toxic Exposures in the Workplace","authors":"C. Monforton","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX008.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX008.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Occupational diseases can serve as the sentinel warnings about the hazards of toxic substances. Regulations and guidelines to control workers' exposure to toxic substances have been influenced by larger social forces, which may have enhanced or impeded the degree of protection provided. Toxicological and epidemiological research and technological developments provide the rationale and the methodologies used to develop legislation, regulations, and guidelines to reduce occupational exposure to toxins. Most regulations and standards for worker protection have training requirements to increase employees' understanding of workplace hazards. These complement the engineering and administrative controls implemented by the affected employers. In the U.S., many industries fall under the authority of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, but some are also required to comply with worker-safety regulations issued by other agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, Nuclear Regulatory Commission or Department of Transportation. A brief description of workplace standards and occupational exposure limits for selected countries are presented. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Environmental Protection Agency; \u0000Occupational Safety and Health Administration; \u0000material safety data sheets; \u0000recommended exposure limits; \u0000threshold limit values","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"15 1","pages":"5-28"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78548217","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toxicology of Flavors in the Food Industry","authors":"C. Doepker, A. Maier, B. Willis, S. Hermansky","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX114.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX114.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The present chapter represents toxicological information on selected flavoring ingredients commonly found in the food and beverage workplace that have recently gathered attention regarding potential risks to the workers handling them. GRAS ingredients can present hazards in the occupational context, it is very important that workers review material safety data sheets (MSDS) and understand the verbiage on these MSDS as part of a comprehensive hazard communication program. FEMA and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) have adopted modified Cramer approaches and the TTC concept to classify flavor ingredients by structure and, thus, according to risk. Today, new chemical entities are being designed and created to maximize and/or customize the interaction of the flavor ingredient with taste receptors. Several important flavor chemicals have been covered in this chapter with respect to their properties, exposure assessment, toxicity, and regulations of exposure. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000acetoin; \u0000acetyl methyl carbinol; \u0000caffeine; \u0000diacetyl; \u0000perchlorate; \u0000threshold of regulation; \u0000flavor safety","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"43 1","pages":"133-168"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85826922","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Esters of Mono‐ and Alkenyl Carboxylic Acids and Mono‐ and Polyalcohols","authors":"K. Coleman, W. A. Toscano","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX079.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX079.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This volume contains three chapters reviewing 12 classes of organic compounds called esters. This chapter (Chapter 57) reviews \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of monocarboxylic acids and mono- and polyalcohols and \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of alkenyl carboxylic acids and monoalcohols; Chapter 58 reviews \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of aromatic monocarboxylic acids and monoalcohols, \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of monocarboxylic acids and di-, tri-, and polyalcohols, \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000dicarboxylic acid esters, \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000alkenyl dicarboxylic esters, \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of aromatic diacids, and \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000tricarboxylic acid esters; and Chapter 59 covers \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of carbonic acid and orthocarbonic acid, \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of organic phosphorous compounds, \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000esters of monocarboxylic halogenated acids, alkanols, or haloalcohols, and \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000organic silicon esters. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The sequence of the compounds has been organized according to the chemical structure of the major functional metabolites. This involves the ester hydrolyzates, primarily the acid and secondarily the alcohol. The reason for this sequence was the general observation that the degree of toxic effect, in addition to that of the original material, more often was the result of the toxicity of the acid rather than the response of the alcohol. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Esters are important from an industrial hygiene perspective since exposure can occur during the process of manufacturing esters, the process of manufacturing materials containing or composed of esters, handling and use of products containing or composed of esters, and treatment of wastes containing esters. In turn, exposure to esters is important from a toxicological perspective because of the correlated observations of adverse physiological responses exhibited by laboratory animals and humans. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Overviews of the physical, chemical, and toxicological (i.e., physiological responses) properties of many subclasses of esters and/or of specific compounds are provided. In addition, summaries of relative manufacturing and use information are included for many compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Chemically, esters are organic compounds commonly formed via the combination of an acid, typically an organic (COOH) mono- or polyacid, and a hydroxyl (OH) group of a mono- or polyalcohol or phenol; water (HOH) is generated as a by-product of the reaction. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The esters are widely used in industry and commerce. They can be prepared by the reactions of acids with alcohols by reacting metal salts of acids with alkyl halides, acid halides with alcohols, or acid anhydrides with alcohols by the interchange of radicals between esters. Most esters exist in liquid form at ambient temperatures, but some possess lower boiling points than their original starting materials. They are relatively water insoluble, except for the lower molecular weight members. Their flash points are in the flammable range. The monocarboxylic acid esters have high volatility and pleasant odors, whereas the di- and polyacid esters are relatively nonvolatile a","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"24 1","pages":"55-146"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85661481","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cold Stress: Effects on Performance and Health","authors":"I. Holmér, J. Hassi, T. Ikäheimo, J. Jaakkola","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX097.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX097.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The present chapter is intended to provide an overview of cold stress and strain not only on workers in cold workplaces, but also on people in general exposed to cold climate. Human adaptation to cold can be either acquired or inherited and occurs through acclimatization. The pattern of cold adaptation is dependent on the type (air, water) and intensity (continuous, intermittent) of the cold exposure. It has been reported that cold exposure and cooling can have profound effects on physical and cognitive performance. The majority of scientific reports related to health consequences of cold weather are on acute health changes. The study finds that total mortality among most populations is highest in winter and lowest in summer. Regulations or standards defining acceptable cold stress situations rely on one or a combination of approaches to control cold stress. Most prevalent national or international exposure guidelines have been provided comprehensively. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000clothing; \u0000frostbite; \u0000hand-arm vibration syndrome; \u0000hypothermia; \u0000solar radiation; \u0000wind chill temperature; \u0000cold mortality; \u0000cold morbidity","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"22 1","pages":"1-26"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88122824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Smoke and Combustion Products","authors":"C. Baxter","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX108.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX108.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Exposure to smoke and complex combustion products is a major source of death and disease in two major populations: residents of burning structures and firefighters attempting to extinguish them. Seventy-six percent of the people that died in fires in their residential structures in 1990 died from the inhalation of toxic combustion products, not from burns (J. R. Hall and B. Harwood, Smoke or burns—which is deadlier? NFPA J., 38–43 (1995)). This percentage has been rising by about one percentage point per year since 1979. Although total deaths in fires are declining, the percentage attributed to smoke inhalation has increased. The majority of deaths and chronic diseases in residential firefighters have also been attributed to smoke exposure (T. L. Guidotti, Occupational mortality among firefighters: assessing the association. J. Occup. Environ. Med., 37, 1348–1359 (1995)). The area of research termed combustion toxicity has evolved to study the adverse health effects caused by smoke or fire atmospheres. According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), smoke consists of “the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion” (Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.07, E176, ASTM, 1996, pp. 496–500) and therefore, includes combustion products. In this chapter, a fire atmosphere is defined as all the effluents generated by the thermal decomposition of materials or products regardless of whether that effluent is produced under smoldering, nonflaming, or flaming conditions. The objectives of combustion toxicity research are to identify potentially harmful products from the thermal degradation of materials, to determine the best measurement methods for the identification of the toxicants as well as the degree of toxicity, to determine the effect of different fire exposures on the composition of the toxic combustion products, to predict the toxicity of the combustion atmospheres based on the concentrations and the interaction of the toxic products, and to establish the physiological effects of such products on living organisms. The ultimate goals of this field of research are to reduce human fire fatalities due to smoke inhalation, to determine effective treatments for survivors, and to prevent unnecessary suffering from cancer and other adverse health outcomes caused by smoke inhalation. Other reviews of various aspects of this subject can be found in the following references: \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000B. C. Levin, Combustion toxicology, in P. Wexler, ed., Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Vol. 1, Academic Press, San Diego, 1998, pp. 360–374. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000G. L. Nelson, ed., Fire and Polymers II: Materials and Tests for Hazard Prevention, ACS Symposium Series 599, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1995. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000National Research Council and National Materials Advisory Board, Fire- and Smoke-Resistant Interior Materials for Commercial Transport Aircraft, Publication Number NMAB-477-1, National Acade","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"37 11","pages":"399-418"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72611879","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aromatic Nitro and Amino Compounds","authors":"E. Bingham, William L. McGowan","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX057.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX057.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Logically, aromatic nitro and amino compounds should be discussed together because their toxic responses are often similar due to a common metabolic intermediate. Synthetically, amines are generally derived from nitro compounds, but in some cases nitro compounds can be prepared through amines when other methods fail to afford specific compounds. There are good and bad attributes to these types of compounds. Some act as sensitizers and contingent on physical properties may be absorbed through the skin or mucous membranes. They may also cause methemoglobinemia, depending on such factors as the structure and the particular organism. Some members of this class are known as animal and human carcinogens; for humans, the urinary bladder is the most prominent target organ. Nevertheless, these compounds and their derivatives have enlivened our world through their use as dyestuff intermediates or as photographic chemicals, they alleviate pain as components of widely used analgesics, and they cushion or insulate us through their use in flexible and rigid foams. Other important uses include production of pesticides, including herbicides and fungicides, as ingredients in adhesives, paints and coatings, antioxidants, explosives, optical brighteners, rubber ingredients, and as intermediates in many other products. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Air pollutants; \u0000aromatic amino compounds; \u0000aromatic nitro compounds; \u0000bladder cancer; \u0000chloro compounds; \u0000databases; \u0000inventories","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"321 1","pages":"1-92"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79709824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Saturated Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Two to Four Carbons","authors":"J. B. Reid, C. Muianga","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX063.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX063.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter relies extensively on information provided in earlier editions. Several online databases were utilized in searching for recent information in preparing the chapter. These included NTP (National Toxicology Program), IRIS (Integrated Risk Information Service), and the ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) websites. Most recent information was sought through MEDLINE and when possible the original articles were reviewed. Debatably, IRIS was considered to be the last word with regard to cancer. Many of the compounds have been recently reviewed by the ATSDR and are reported in their toxicological profiles. Recent reviews were utilized in preparing this chapter. In addition, the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards and the ACGIH's TLV's® for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents: 2011 (CD) were utilized. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000ethylene chloride; \u0000metabolic disposition; \u00001,1-dichloroethane; \u0000ethylene dichloride; \u0000methyl chloroform; \u00001,1,2-trichlorethane; \u00001,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane; \u0000pentachloroethane; \u0000hexachloroethane; \u0000propyl chloride; \u0000isopropyl chloride; \u0000ethyl bromide; \u0000ethylene dibromide; \u00001,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"75 1","pages":"61-127"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90678011","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Biological Rhythms, Shiftwork, and Occupational Health","authors":"A. Scott","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX107.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX107.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"“… and God divided the light from the darkness, and God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. And the evening and the morning were the first day” (Genesis 1:4–5, King James Version). Thus, as has been recognized for millennia, Homo sapiens, as well as all other living creatures on earth, are destined to live in a regular cycle of light and darkness, that is, the 24-h solar day. For diurnal species, such as human beings, the sunlight portion of the day is the time of activity and the dark, nighttime portion the time for sleeping. Periodicity is an integral part of life. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Although we are under the influence of environmental rhythms, such as the daylight–night cycle, we are also under the physiological influence of our own internal biological clock. Normally the synchronization of our biological rhythms with each other and with environmental rhythms (external time cues) maximizes our waking and sleeping performance and promotes overall well-being. Night work is opposed to the innate drive to sleep at night and work during the daytime. This unnatural mismatch of environmental and internal temporal influences is of concern for shiftworkers due to the often disruptive effect of schedule-related time shifts on the normal synchronization of individual biological rhythms with each other as well as with the external time cues. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000This chapter reviews basic chronobiological principles as they relate to shiftworker safety and health. Studies dealing with the effects of time shifts on sleep and alertness are discussed as well as performance rhythms. Research exploring the consequences of shiftwork on physical and mental health is reviewed. Countermeasures for minimizing adverse health and safety effects of sleep deprivation and biological rhythm disruption are presented, including work scheduling considerations and medical surveillance. Industrial hygiene considerations related to control of worker exposure to potential toxins during extended and rotating shifts are presented. Finally, international and U.S. regulatory policy regarding shiftwork scheduling and special provisions for shiftworkers are reviewed. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Circadian rhythms; \u0000Biological rhythms; \u0000Biological clock; \u0000Time shifts; \u0000Zeitgebers; \u0000Melatonin; \u0000Photoreceptors; \u0000Shiftwork; \u0000Performance; \u0000Safety; \u0000Sleep; \u0000Sleep deprivation; \u0000Rotating schedule job; \u0000Accidents; \u0000Errors; \u0000Public disasters; \u0000Transportation incidents; \u0000Medical disorders; \u0000Depression; \u0000Medical screening; \u0000Surveillance; \u0000Gastrointestinal disorders; \u0000Cardiovascular morbidity; \u0000Mental health; \u0000Reproduction; \u0000Scedule changes; \u0000Regulation; \u0000Countermeasures; \u0000Caffeine; \u0000Diet; \u0000Exercise","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"15 1","pages":"333-398"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83299675","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aliphatic and Aromatic Nitrogen Compounds","authors":"G. Kennedy","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX059.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX059.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter covers both aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures. Only a small number of the nitrogen-containing compounds that could be considered will be reviewed here mainly based on their uses in industry. This is an update of a previous chapter and for each chemical, the first sentence will tell the reader whether there has been significant new information published in the literature and included or whether there has been little or no new information available for update and inclusion. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Three-membered rings discussed are ethyleneimine, propyleneimine, and, one polyfunctional derivative, triethylenemelamine. Toxicologists, chemists, and biologists have always been interested in ethyleneimine and its derivatives because they are reactive, are useful at relatively low doses, and are moderately to highly toxic. Ethyleneimines are classic alkylating agents and have toxicological effects similar to nitrogen mustards. Monofunctional derivatives of ethyleneimine are less potent in producing the characteristic toxicity of the group than the derivatives that have two or more ethyleneimine groups. Finally, polymers of ethyleneimine and its derivatives have shown a relatively low order of toxicity. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Six simple nitrogen mustards (β-chloroethylamines) are also covered in this chapter. They are all tertiary amines in which the halogen atom and the amine portion have reactivities similar to the alkyl halides and alkyl amines. They have no significant industrial uses in the United States, but they are used in medicine as “antineoplastic agents” and in treating some nonmalignant diseases. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Representative nitrogen-containing chemicals that have five-membered rings (pyrrolidine, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone) and six-membered rings (piperidine, piperazine, morpholine, and hexamethylenetetramine) are also discussed in this chapter in some detail. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Several representative aromatic nitrogen compounds are covered—pyrrole, aminotriazole, N-sulfenyl phthalimide fungicides, benzimidazole fungicides, and 1-H-benzotriazole. The data presented for compounds of this class that are used in agriculture include toxicology studies that have been published in the open literature as well as those available through company files to support governmental registration. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000In some cases, the high toxicity of the agent has been considered and is the reason for its inclusion here, rather than usage volume or industrial importance. Further, very little pharmacological information is presented because this is adequately covered in the pharmacological literature. We have tried to minimize hypotheses regarding the mechanism of action not because it is unimportant, but because the biochemistries are often very detailed, are almost always fairly speculative, and are presented comprehensively in other texts. Likewise, we resisted the temptation to employ structure–activity relationships because, although the database ","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"57 1","pages":"1-82"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84852238","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}