Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX020.PUB2
J. Yadav, R. Kapoor
Occupational risk to healthcare workers from infections with bloodborne pathogens has been recognized since the mid-twentieth century. Early reports around 1950s on “serum hepatitis” subsequently led to identification of hepatitis B as the causative agent in the bloodborne infection. In the early 1970s, serological tests became available for the diagnosis of infection with both hepatitis B and hepatitis A viruses. Non-A, non-B hepatitis (hepatitis C) emerged as a second bloodborne infection but, because of the lack of a serologic marker, the prevalence of the disease and its occupational risks were not appreciated. With the identification of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the viral pathogen of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the mid-1980s, healthcare workers became very concerned about the occupational risk to HIV infections due to exposure to the infected patients. The potential occult infectivity of blood has been emphasized with the documentation of 57 occupationally transmitted infections with HIV-1 in the United States. Since the first occupational transmission was reported in 1984, healthcare and laboratory administrators, as well as those in the public sector, have reexamined the infection control aspects of their work practices and have begun to analyze and develop equipment and procedures to minimize exposures. While majority of the occupational infections in healthcare workers are due to the three bloodborne viruses, HBV, HCV, and HIV, any septicemic infection (viremia, parasitemia, bacteriemia, or fungemia) may pose a potential risk of transmission of the pathogen to healthcare professionals via either percutaneous route (needlestick or sharps injury) or mucocutaneous route (contact with nonintact skin or mucosa of the eyes or mouth). Because infection with HIV and other bloodborne pathogens is not always clinically apparent, and the infectious potential of blood and other body fluids is not always known, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommended “universal blood and body fluid precautions” in 1987. This approach emphasizes that blood and body fluid precautions should be consistently used for all patients and their clinical specimens and tissues. The “universal precautions” strategy has formed the foundation for federal guidelines through the CDC and regulations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Both organizations recognize that this practical approach to safety will not only minimize the risk of occupationally acquired HIV-1 infection but also serve to protect against occupational infection with other bloodborne pathogens such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human T-cell leukemia viruses I and II, HIV-2, and, to a large extent, prions (agents causing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease). Nonetheless, a substantial number of percutaneous exposures continue to occur in the healthcare setting, despite implementation of the universal precautions guidelines. The risks to healthc
{"title":"Bloodborne Pathogens in the Workplace","authors":"J. Yadav, R. Kapoor","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX020.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX020.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Occupational risk to healthcare workers from infections with bloodborne pathogens has been recognized since the mid-twentieth century. Early reports around 1950s on “serum hepatitis” subsequently led to identification of hepatitis B as the causative agent in the bloodborne infection. In the early 1970s, serological tests became available for the diagnosis of infection with both hepatitis B and hepatitis A viruses. Non-A, non-B hepatitis (hepatitis C) emerged as a second bloodborne infection but, because of the lack of a serologic marker, the prevalence of the disease and its occupational risks were not appreciated. With the identification of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the viral pathogen of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the mid-1980s, healthcare workers became very concerned about the occupational risk to HIV infections due to exposure to the infected patients. The potential occult infectivity of blood has been emphasized with the documentation of 57 occupationally transmitted infections with HIV-1 in the United States. Since the first occupational transmission was reported in 1984, healthcare and laboratory administrators, as well as those in the public sector, have reexamined the infection control aspects of their work practices and have begun to analyze and develop equipment and procedures to minimize exposures. While majority of the occupational infections in healthcare workers are due to the three bloodborne viruses, HBV, HCV, and HIV, any septicemic infection (viremia, parasitemia, bacteriemia, or fungemia) may pose a potential risk of transmission of the pathogen to healthcare professionals via either percutaneous route (needlestick or sharps injury) or mucocutaneous route (contact with nonintact skin or mucosa of the eyes or mouth). \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Because infection with HIV and other bloodborne pathogens is not always clinically apparent, and the infectious potential of blood and other body fluids is not always known, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommended “universal blood and body fluid precautions” in 1987. This approach emphasizes that blood and body fluid precautions should be consistently used for all patients and their clinical specimens and tissues. The “universal precautions” strategy has formed the foundation for federal guidelines through the CDC and regulations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Both organizations recognize that this practical approach to safety will not only minimize the risk of occupationally acquired HIV-1 infection but also serve to protect against occupational infection with other bloodborne pathogens such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human T-cell leukemia viruses I and II, HIV-2, and, to a large extent, prions (agents causing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease). Nonetheless, a substantial number of percutaneous exposures continue to occur in the healthcare setting, despite implementation of the universal precautions guidelines. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The risks to healthc","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"35 1","pages":"535-558"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78022544","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX052.PUB2
C. Baxter, D. Warshawsky
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are moderately reactive, but undergo photochemical degradation in the atmosphere, and are widely used as chemical raw materials. Aromatic hydrocarbons cause local irritation and changes in endothelial cell permeability and are absorbed rapidly. Accumulation of aromatic hydrocarbons in marine animals occurs to a greater extent and retention is longer compared to alkanes. Toxicity of polynuclear aromatics has been reported comprehensively. It has been reported that exposure to a variety of complex mixtures containing these chemicals, such as soot, coal tar and pitch, mineral oils, coal gasification residues, and cigarette smoke has historically been associated with induction of cancer. Naphthalene causes cataracts in the eyes of experimental animals. Its vapors may cause severe systemic injury. Alkylbenzenes are readily aspirated and produce instant death via cardiac arrest and respiratory paralysis. In general, the acute toxicity of alkylbenzenes is higher for toluene than that for benzene and decreases further with increasing chain length of the substituent, except for highly branched C8 to C18 derivatives. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are metabolized through epoxides and hydroxides and are excreted as conjugates. Keywords: aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase; Alkyl benzene; anthracene; heterocyclic; polyphenol; naphthalene
{"title":"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Azaaromatic Compounds","authors":"C. Baxter, D. Warshawsky","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX052.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX052.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are moderately reactive, but undergo photochemical degradation in the atmosphere, and are widely used as chemical raw materials. Aromatic hydrocarbons cause local irritation and changes in endothelial cell permeability and are absorbed rapidly. Accumulation of aromatic hydrocarbons in marine animals occurs to a greater extent and retention is longer compared to alkanes. Toxicity of polynuclear aromatics has been reported comprehensively. It has been reported that exposure to a variety of complex mixtures containing these chemicals, such as soot, coal tar and pitch, mineral oils, coal gasification residues, and cigarette smoke has historically been associated with induction of cancer. Naphthalene causes cataracts in the eyes of experimental animals. Its vapors may cause severe systemic injury. Alkylbenzenes are readily aspirated and produce instant death via cardiac arrest and respiratory paralysis. In general, the acute toxicity of alkylbenzenes is higher for toluene than that for benzene and decreases further with increasing chain length of the substituent, except for highly branched C8 to C18 derivatives. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are metabolized through epoxides and hydroxides and are excreted as conjugates. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase; \u0000Alkyl benzene; \u0000anthracene; \u0000heterocyclic; \u0000polyphenol; \u0000naphthalene","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"1 1","pages":"371-428"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89019614","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX001.PUB2
E. Bingham, B. Cohrssen
The information in industrial toxicology that is produced by industry, government, or academia has changed greatly in emphasis and direction in the past 10 years. Carcinogenesis still remains of greatest importance in industrial toxicology and is based on human studies, environmental studies and epidemiology data. However, in the past, research was generated from the data and information obtained from industrial health departments. Now, most of the research is being done in university laboratories and these laboratories are looking at the mechanisms of action of specific chemicals. The revolution in genetics and specifically in mapping the human genome has greatly affected toxicologic research. These trends and developments are presented, as well how the government agencies have become the sources of much of the new toxicologic information that is available. The toxicologic information provided by these volumes will be useful providing the global workplace with the necessary data for keeping workers healthy. Keywords: trends in toxicologic research; government sources of toxicologic information; history of industrial toxicology
{"title":"Trends in Industrial Toxicology","authors":"E. Bingham, B. Cohrssen","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX001.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX001.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"The information in industrial toxicology that is produced by industry, government, or academia has changed greatly in emphasis and direction in the past 10 years. Carcinogenesis still remains of greatest importance in industrial toxicology and is based on human studies, environmental studies and epidemiology data. However, in the past, research was generated from the data and information obtained from industrial health departments. Now, most of the research is being done in university laboratories and these laboratories are looking at the mechanisms of action of specific chemicals. The revolution in genetics and specifically in mapping the human genome has greatly affected toxicologic research. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000These trends and developments are presented, as well how the government agencies have become the sources of much of the new toxicologic information that is available. The toxicologic information provided by these volumes will be useful providing the global workplace with the necessary data for keeping workers healthy. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000trends in toxicologic research; \u0000government sources of toxicologic information; \u0000history of industrial toxicology","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"37 1","pages":"1-4"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"91163740","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX076.PUB2
J. O’Donoghue
Ketones of carbon number 6–13 are important commercial and industrial materials. Their primary use is as solvents in numerous products and industrial applications. Owing to their volatility, environmental regulations have been directed at restricting emissions, particularly to the atmosphere. A number of the ketones discussed in this chapter not only can undergo photochemical transformations that contribute to their abiotic degradation but also may contribute to the formation of smog. Regulations limiting or prohibiting release of materials that may contribute to smog formation are leading to reductions in the use of some of these materials. As for the short-chain ketones discussed in Chapter 53, the ketones covered in this chapter are of concern mainly due to inhalation and dermal exposure routes. Acute exposure to high vapor concentrations of these materials may result in narcosis; however, such exposures are rare except in cases of accidents. Low levels of exposure to many of these ketones can be expected in the environment and through endogenous exposure because ketones are common substrates for many of the enzymes associated with intermediary metabolism in organisms from bacteria to man. Keywords: neurotoxicity; methyl-n-butyl ketone; structure–activity relationships; methyl isobutyl ketone; mesityl oxide; 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone; 2,5-hexanedione; cyclohexanol; methyl-n-amyl ketone; methyl isoamyl ketone; ethyl-n-butyl ketone; di-n-propyl ketone; diisopropyl ketone; 2-methylcyclohexanone; acetophenone; 2-octanone; 5-methyl-3-heptanone; propiophenone; isophorone; 5-nonanone; diisobutyl ketone; trimethyl nonanone; benzophenone; diacetyl; 2,3-pentanedione; 2,3-hexanedione
{"title":"Ketones of Six to Thirteen Carbons","authors":"J. O’Donoghue","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX076.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX076.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Ketones of carbon number 6–13 are important commercial and industrial materials. Their primary use is as solvents in numerous products and industrial applications. Owing to their volatility, environmental regulations have been directed at restricting emissions, particularly to the atmosphere. A number of the ketones discussed in this chapter not only can undergo photochemical transformations that contribute to their abiotic degradation but also may contribute to the formation of smog. Regulations limiting or prohibiting release of materials that may contribute to smog formation are leading to reductions in the use of some of these materials. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000As for the short-chain ketones discussed in Chapter 53, the ketones covered in this chapter are of concern mainly due to inhalation and dermal exposure routes. Acute exposure to high vapor concentrations of these materials may result in narcosis; however, such exposures are rare except in cases of accidents. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Low levels of exposure to many of these ketones can be expected in the environment and through endogenous exposure because ketones are common substrates for many of the enzymes associated with intermediary metabolism in organisms from bacteria to man. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000neurotoxicity; \u0000methyl-n-butyl ketone; \u0000structure–activity relationships; \u0000methyl isobutyl ketone; \u0000mesityl oxide; \u00004-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone; \u00002,5-hexanedione; \u0000cyclohexanol; \u0000methyl-n-amyl ketone; \u0000methyl isoamyl ketone; \u0000ethyl-n-butyl ketone; \u0000di-n-propyl ketone; \u0000diisopropyl ketone; \u00002-methylcyclohexanone; \u0000acetophenone; \u00002-octanone; \u00005-methyl-3-heptanone; \u0000propiophenone; \u0000isophorone; \u00005-nonanone; \u0000diisobutyl ketone; \u0000trimethyl nonanone; \u0000benzophenone; \u0000diacetyl; \u00002,3-pentanedione; \u00002,3-hexanedione","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"15 1","pages":"807-914"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77063181","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX087.PUB2
S. Cragg
There are five U.S. manufacturers of propylene glycol ether derivatives shown in Table 1. This table also lists the trade names for these materials. The ethers of mono-, di-, tri-, and polypropylene glycol are prepared commercially by reacting propylene oxide with the alcohol of choice in the presence of a catalyst. They may also be prepared by direct alkylation of the selected glycol with an appropriate alkylating agent such as a dialkyl sulfate in the presence of an alkali. The monoalkyl ethers of propylene glycol occur in two isomeric forms, the alpha or beta isomer. The alpha isomer is a secondary alcohol (on the middle carbon of the propane backbone) that forms the ether linkage at the terminal alcohol of propylyene glycol. This alpha isomer is predominant during synthesis. The beta isomer is a primary alcohol with the ether linkage formed at the secondary alcohol. The toxicological significance of the alpha and beta isomers of propylene glycol is discussed later in this narrative. The monoalkyl ethers of dipropylene glycol occur in four isomeric forms. The commercial product Dowanol® DPM Glycol Ether is believed to be a mixture of these but to consist to a very large extent of the isomer in which the alkyl group has replaced the hydrogen of the primary hydroxyl group of the dipropylene glycol, which is a secondary alcohol. The internal ether linkage is between the 2 position of the alkyl-etherized propylene unit and the primary carbon of the other propylene unit, thus leaving the remaining secondary hydroxyl group unsubstituted. In the case of dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether, the primary isomer is 1-(2-methoxy-1-methylethoxy)-2-propanol. The monoalkyl ethers of tripropylene glycol can appear in eight isomeric forms. The commercial product Dowanol® TPM Glycol Ether, however, is believed to be a mixture of isomers consisting largely of the one in which the alkyl group displaces the hydrogen of the primary hydroxyl group of the tripropylene glycol and the internal ether linkages are between secondary and primary carbons. The known physical properties of the most common ethers are given in Tables 5 and 8. The methyl and ethyl ethers of these propylene glycols are miscible with both water and a great variety of organic solvents. The butyl ethers have limited water solubility but are miscible with most organic solvents. This mutual solvency makes them valuable as coupling, coalescing, and dispersing agents. These glycol ethers have found applications as solvents for surface coatings, inks, lacquers, paints, resins, dyes, agricultural chemicals, and other oils and greases. The di- and tripropylene series also are used as ingredients in hydraulic brake fluids. Occupational exposure would normally be limited to dermal and/or inhalation exposure. The toxicological activity of the propylene glycol-based ethers generally indicates a low order of toxicity. Under typical conditions of exposure and use, propylene glycol eth
{"title":"Glycol Ethers: Ethers of Propylene, Butylene Glycols, and Other Glycol Derivatives","authors":"S. Cragg","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX087.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX087.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"There are five U.S. manufacturers of propylene glycol ether derivatives shown in Table 1. This table also lists the trade names for these materials. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The ethers of mono-, di-, tri-, and polypropylene glycol are prepared commercially by reacting propylene oxide with the alcohol of choice in the presence of a catalyst. They may also be prepared by direct alkylation of the selected glycol with an appropriate alkylating agent such as a dialkyl sulfate in the presence of an alkali. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The monoalkyl ethers of propylene glycol occur in two isomeric forms, the alpha or beta isomer. The alpha isomer is a secondary alcohol (on the middle carbon of the propane backbone) that forms the ether linkage at the terminal alcohol of propylyene glycol. This alpha isomer is predominant during synthesis. The beta isomer is a primary alcohol with the ether linkage formed at the secondary alcohol. The toxicological significance of the alpha and beta isomers of propylene glycol is discussed later in this narrative. The monoalkyl ethers of dipropylene glycol occur in four isomeric forms. The commercial product Dowanol® DPM Glycol Ether is believed to be a mixture of these but to consist to a very large extent of the isomer in which the alkyl group has replaced the hydrogen of the primary hydroxyl group of the dipropylene glycol, which is a secondary alcohol. The internal ether linkage is between the 2 position of the alkyl-etherized propylene unit and the primary carbon of the other propylene unit, thus leaving the remaining secondary hydroxyl group unsubstituted. In the case of dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether, the primary isomer is 1-(2-methoxy-1-methylethoxy)-2-propanol. The monoalkyl ethers of tripropylene glycol can appear in eight isomeric forms. The commercial product Dowanol® TPM Glycol Ether, however, is believed to be a mixture of isomers consisting largely of the one in which the alkyl group displaces the hydrogen of the primary hydroxyl group of the tripropylene glycol and the internal ether linkages are between secondary and primary carbons. The known physical properties of the most common ethers are given in Tables 5 and 8. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The methyl and ethyl ethers of these propylene glycols are miscible with both water and a great variety of organic solvents. The butyl ethers have limited water solubility but are miscible with most organic solvents. This mutual solvency makes them valuable as coupling, coalescing, and dispersing agents. These glycol ethers have found applications as solvents for surface coatings, inks, lacquers, paints, resins, dyes, agricultural chemicals, and other oils and greases. The di- and tripropylene series also are used as ingredients in hydraulic brake fluids. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Occupational exposure would normally be limited to dermal and/or inhalation exposure. The toxicological activity of the propylene glycol-based ethers generally indicates a low order of toxicity. Under typical conditions of exposure and use, propylene glycol eth","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"108 1","pages":"789-878"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79034370","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX056.PUB2
F. Cavender
Aliphatic and alicyclic amines are nonaromatic amines that have a straight chain, a branched chain, or a cyclic alkyl moiety attached to the nitrogen atom. Aliphatic amines are highly alkaline and tend to be fat soluble. As such, they have the potential to produce severe irritation to skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Corrosive burns as well as marked allergic sensitization may also occur. Volatile amines, which are characterized by boiling points lower than 100°C, are highly irritating and include methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, ethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, n-propylamine, isopropylamine, diisopropylamine, allylamine, n-butylamine, isobutylamine, sec-butylamine, tert-butylamine, and dimethylbutylamine. Workplace practice must consider these properties in developing strategies to protect workers. Toxicity information in humans continues to be limited. Although great strides in understanding the process of carcinogenicity have been made in recent years, controversies regarding potential aliphatic amine carcinogenicity are far from being resolved. Of considerable interest is the possibility of nitrosamine formation, which is both compound specific and pH dependent. Keywords: Aliphatic amines; Alicyclic amines; Odors and warnings; Eye irritant
{"title":"Aliphatic and Alicyclic Amines","authors":"F. Cavender","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX056.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX056.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Aliphatic and alicyclic amines are nonaromatic amines that have a straight chain, a branched chain, or a cyclic alkyl moiety attached to the nitrogen atom. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Aliphatic amines are highly alkaline and tend to be fat soluble. As such, they have the potential to produce severe irritation to skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Corrosive burns as well as marked allergic sensitization may also occur. Volatile amines, which are characterized by boiling points lower than 100°C, are highly irritating and include methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, ethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, n-propylamine, isopropylamine, diisopropylamine, allylamine, n-butylamine, isobutylamine, sec-butylamine, tert-butylamine, and dimethylbutylamine. Workplace practice must consider these properties in developing strategies to protect workers. Toxicity information in humans continues to be limited. Although great strides in understanding the process of carcinogenicity have been made in recent years, controversies regarding potential aliphatic amine carcinogenicity are far from being resolved. Of considerable interest is the possibility of nitrosamine formation, which is both compound specific and pH dependent. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Aliphatic amines; \u0000Alicyclic amines; \u0000Odors and warnings; \u0000Eye irritant","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"1 1","pages":"1-84"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83471151","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX090.PUB2
B. Walker, Lynette D. Stokes
Polyvinyl acetate, the most widely used vinyl ester, is noted for its adhesion to substrates and high cold flow. Polyvinyl acetate serves as the precursor for polyvinyl alcohol and, directly or indirectly, the polyvinyl acetals. Both polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol are insoluble in many organic solvents but water sensitive. Polyvinyl acetate absorbs from 1 to 3% water, up to 8% on prolonged immersion. Polyvinyl alcohol absorbs 6–9% water when humidity conditioned and can usually be dissolved completely in water above 90°C, but it can also be insolubilized by chemical treatment. U.S. manufacturers currently sell polyvinyl acetate in emulsion form and polyvinyl alcohol as granules. Polyvinyl alcohol is processed into films and formulated with other materials into emulsion intermediates. Both polymers are typically used in aqueous systems. Both polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol meeting certain specifications are permitted in stated food contact applications such as packaging, coatings, and adhesives. Ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymers and ethylene–vinyl acetate–vinyl alcohol terpolymers are similarly permitted in certain food contact applications. Polyvinyl acetate with a minimum molecular weight of 2000 is permitted as a synthetic masticatory substance in chewing gum base. Monomer residue has not been considered a problem in end-use products. Latexes or solutions of polyvinyl acetate that are essentially intermediates may contain residual vinyl acetate, essential emulsifiers, or initiators. No detailed information is available on the amount of unreacted monomer in either polyvinyl acetate or polyvinyl alcohol resins. Local sarcomas have been produced in rats with polyvinyl alcohol sponges, but implants of both polyvinyl alcohol and polyvinyl acetate in powder form did not produce tumors. IARC considered that additional studies would be required prior to evaluation of carcinogenic potential. Inhalation and combustion toxicity have not been considered problems. This may be attributed to polymer structure and degradation characteristics as well as the nature of ordinary intermediate and end-use products. Since the 1700s when Newman first isolated styrene by stream distillation from liquid ambar, a solid resin obtained directly from a family of trees native to the Far East and California, a substantial industry has developed for styrene-based products. Today, “styrene-based” plastics most commonly are polystyrene, successfully commercialized in 1938, plus the derivatives containing butadiene, acrylonitrile, or both. The derivatives containing acrylonitrile are also called “acrylonitrile polymers” or “nitrile polymers.” Polystyrene is made in three different forms: crystal, impact, and expandable. Producers generally refer to the polystyrene market as including only crystal and impact grade. Expandable polystyrene—a foam product, with primary markets in construction and packaging—is a separate speci
{"title":"Polyvinyl Acetate, Alcohol, and Derivatives, Polystyrene, and Acrylics","authors":"B. Walker, Lynette D. Stokes","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX090.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX090.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Polyvinyl acetate, the most widely used vinyl ester, is noted for its adhesion to substrates and high cold flow. Polyvinyl acetate serves as the precursor for polyvinyl alcohol and, directly or indirectly, the polyvinyl acetals. Both polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol are insoluble in many organic solvents but water sensitive. Polyvinyl acetate absorbs from 1 to 3% water, up to 8% on prolonged immersion. Polyvinyl alcohol absorbs 6–9% water when humidity conditioned and can usually be dissolved completely in water above 90°C, but it can also be insolubilized by chemical treatment. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000U.S. manufacturers currently sell polyvinyl acetate in emulsion form and polyvinyl alcohol as granules. Polyvinyl alcohol is processed into films and formulated with other materials into emulsion intermediates. Both polymers are typically used in aqueous systems. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Both polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol meeting certain specifications are permitted in stated food contact applications such as packaging, coatings, and adhesives. Ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymers and ethylene–vinyl acetate–vinyl alcohol terpolymers are similarly permitted in certain food contact applications. Polyvinyl acetate with a minimum molecular weight of 2000 is permitted as a synthetic masticatory substance in chewing gum base. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Monomer residue has not been considered a problem in end-use products. Latexes or solutions of polyvinyl acetate that are essentially intermediates may contain residual vinyl acetate, essential emulsifiers, or initiators. No detailed information is available on the amount of unreacted monomer in either polyvinyl acetate or polyvinyl alcohol resins. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Local sarcomas have been produced in rats with polyvinyl alcohol sponges, but implants of both polyvinyl alcohol and polyvinyl acetate in powder form did not produce tumors. IARC considered that additional studies would be required prior to evaluation of carcinogenic potential. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Inhalation and combustion toxicity have not been considered problems. This may be attributed to polymer structure and degradation characteristics as well as the nature of ordinary intermediate and end-use products. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Since the 1700s when Newman first isolated styrene by stream distillation from liquid ambar, a solid resin obtained directly from a family of trees native to the Far East and California, a substantial industry has developed for styrene-based products. Today, “styrene-based” plastics most commonly are polystyrene, successfully commercialized in 1938, plus the derivatives containing butadiene, acrylonitrile, or both. The derivatives containing acrylonitrile are also called “acrylonitrile polymers” or “nitrile polymers.” Polystyrene is made in three different forms: crystal, impact, and expandable. Producers generally refer to the polystyrene market as including only crystal and impact grade. Expandable polystyrene—a foam product, with primary markets in construction and packaging—is a separate speci","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"13 1","pages":"917-934"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77269599","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX053.PUB2
F. Cavender, J. O'donohue
Phenol was originally isolated from coal-tar streams, but now it is almost exclusively produced by the oxidation of cumene and subsequent cleavage of the cumene hydroperoxide to form phenol and acetone. The U.S. production of phenol for 1995 was 4.16 billion lb (3). Phenol is used in the petroleum industry to extract lube (lubricating) oil from residual oil. It is reacted with aldehydes such as formaldehyde to form “phenolic resins,” which are widely used as adhesives, structural products, and electrical laminates. Other uses include the manufacture of caprolactam (an intermediate in the manufacture of nylon), bisphenol A (an intermediate in the manufacture of epoxy resins and polycarbonates), herbicides, wood preservatives, hydraulic fluids, heavy-duty surfactants, lube-oil additives, tank linings and coatings, and intermediates for plasticizers and other specialty chemicals. Phenol is used medically in throat lozenges, disinfectants, and ointments; for facial skin peels; and to cause nerve block. With rare exceptions, human exposure in industry has been limited to accidental contact of phenol with the skin or to inhalation of phenol vapors. Other major sources of inhalation exposure include residential burning and automobile exhaust. Similar details are given for phenolics, including chloro and bromo compounds. Keywords: Phenol; Phenolics; Accidental exposure; Nephrotoxicity; Mode of action; Cancer models; Clinical cases; EPA regulations; Hematoxicity; Fire hazard; Chlorinated compounds
{"title":"Phenol and Phenolics","authors":"F. Cavender, J. O'donohue","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX053.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX053.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Phenol was originally isolated from coal-tar streams, but now it is almost exclusively produced by the oxidation of cumene and subsequent cleavage of the cumene hydroperoxide to form phenol and acetone. The U.S. production of phenol for 1995 was 4.16 billion lb (3). Phenol is used in the petroleum industry to extract lube (lubricating) oil from residual oil. It is reacted with aldehydes such as formaldehyde to form “phenolic resins,” which are widely used as adhesives, structural products, and electrical laminates. Other uses include the manufacture of caprolactam (an intermediate in the manufacture of nylon), bisphenol A (an intermediate in the manufacture of epoxy resins and polycarbonates), herbicides, wood preservatives, hydraulic fluids, heavy-duty surfactants, lube-oil additives, tank linings and coatings, and intermediates for plasticizers and other specialty chemicals. Phenol is used medically in throat lozenges, disinfectants, and ointments; for facial skin peels; and to cause nerve block. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000With rare exceptions, human exposure in industry has been limited to accidental contact of phenol with the skin or to inhalation of phenol vapors. Other major sources of inhalation exposure include residential burning and automobile exhaust. Similar details are given for phenolics, including chloro and bromo compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Phenol; \u0000Phenolics; \u0000Accidental exposure; \u0000Nephrotoxicity; \u0000Mode of action; \u0000Cancer models; \u0000Clinical cases; \u0000EPA regulations; \u0000Hematoxicity; \u0000Fire hazard; \u0000Chlorinated compounds","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"37 1","pages":"1-108"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87379224","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX102.PUB2
D. Sliney, Maurice Bitran, W. Murray
Sir William Herschel's discovery of “obscure rays,” extending beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, launched the exploration of the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible range in the year 1800. The following year Johann Ritter demonstrated that invisible rays beyond the violet end of the spectrum are capable of chemical action. These three adjacent portions of the electromagnetic spectrum: infrared (IR), visible (vis), and ultraviolet (UV) are collectively known as optical radiation. Although infrared and ultraviolet radiations are invisible to the human eye, they are considered to be “optical” because they share some propagation and interaction characteristics with visible. As does the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum, optical radiation obeys the laws of electrodynamics and can be described both as electromagnetic waves and as energy corpuscles. All known electromagnetic radiations are customarily arranged monotonically according to their energy in a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum spans many orders of magnitude in energy and, correspondingly, in frequency and wavelength. The optical radiation range is located between microwave radiation and X-rays. The optical radiation range is composed, in order of increasing energy, of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet radiation. Although there are no sharp, well-defined boundaries in the electromagnetic spectrum, the optical radiation range is conventionally defined as extending from 1 mm at the bottom end of the infrared to 100 nm at the upper end of the ultraviolet. The optical range is divided as follows: Ultraviolet 100–400 nm Light 380–400 to 760–780 nm Infrared 760–780 nm to 1 mm The reason for the “fuzzy” boundaries for the visible range is that they are defined by the physiological process of vision, which has some intrinsic variability. The main mechanisms that produce optical radiation are incandescence, electrical discharge, and lasing. The wavelengths in the optical radiation range have limited penetration into the human body. Therefore, the main organs affected by optical radiation are the skin and the eyes, although systemic effects have also been identified. Evolving in an environment where the sun is the main source of optical radiation, humans have developed adaptive characteristics, such as skin pigmentation, a hairy scalp, receded eyes, and aversion responses to bright lights and to excessive heat. These characteristics, however, provide only partial protection against optical radiation. Optical radiation can act on biological tissue through thermal and photochemical processes. The extent of damage depends on the intensity of the radiation, the wavelength, the exposure time, and the optical and physiological characteristics of the tissue exposed. The variability in biological effectiveness of different wavelengths (three orders of magnitude within the ultraviolet ran
{"title":"Infrared, Visible, and Ultraviolet Radiation","authors":"D. Sliney, Maurice Bitran, W. Murray","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX102.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX102.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"Sir William Herschel's discovery of “obscure rays,” extending beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, launched the exploration of the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible range in the year 1800. The following year Johann Ritter demonstrated that invisible rays beyond the violet end of the spectrum are capable of chemical action. These three adjacent portions of the electromagnetic spectrum: infrared (IR), visible (vis), and ultraviolet (UV) are collectively known as optical radiation. Although infrared and ultraviolet radiations are invisible to the human eye, they are considered to be “optical” because they share some propagation and interaction characteristics with visible. As does the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum, optical radiation obeys the laws of electrodynamics and can be described both as electromagnetic waves and as energy corpuscles. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000All known electromagnetic radiations are customarily arranged monotonically according to their energy in a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum spans many orders of magnitude in energy and, correspondingly, in frequency and wavelength. The optical radiation range is located between microwave radiation and X-rays. The optical radiation range is composed, in order of increasing energy, of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet radiation. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Although there are no sharp, well-defined boundaries in the electromagnetic spectrum, the optical radiation range is conventionally defined as extending from 1 mm at the bottom end of the infrared to 100 nm at the upper end of the ultraviolet. The optical range is divided as follows: \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Ultraviolet \u0000100–400 nm \u0000 \u0000Light \u0000380–400 to 760–780 nm \u0000 \u0000Infrared \u0000760–780 nm to 1 mm \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The reason for the “fuzzy” boundaries for the visible range is that they are defined by the physiological process of vision, which has some intrinsic variability. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The main mechanisms that produce optical radiation are incandescence, electrical discharge, and lasing. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The wavelengths in the optical radiation range have limited penetration into the human body. Therefore, the main organs affected by optical radiation are the skin and the eyes, although systemic effects have also been identified. Evolving in an environment where the sun is the main source of optical radiation, humans have developed adaptive characteristics, such as skin pigmentation, a hairy scalp, receded eyes, and aversion responses to bright lights and to excessive heat. These characteristics, however, provide only partial protection against optical radiation. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Optical radiation can act on biological tissue through thermal and photochemical processes. The extent of damage depends on the intensity of the radiation, the wavelength, the exposure time, and the optical and physiological characteristics of the tissue exposed. The variability in biological effectiveness of different wavelengths (three orders of magnitude within the ultraviolet ran","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"18 1","pages":"169-208"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76591242","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-08-17DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.tox060.pub2
D. G. L. J. K. Ms
This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59. Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds. Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones; the substituted uracil herbicides—bromacil, lenacil, and terbacil; the quaternary herbicides–paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines—atrazine and propazine; and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine. Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce. Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide, are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment. Other than the pyridine series of chemicals and the nitroso compounds, most of the chemicals reviewed here include significant new information since the last chapter review. Keywords: Alkylpyridines; aquatic toxicity; dimethylacetamide; dimethylformamide; genetic toxicity; herbicides; hydrazines; industrial solvents; nitrosamines; pesticides
{"title":"Alkylpyridines and Miscellaneous Organic Nitrogen Compounds","authors":"D. G. L. J. K. Ms","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.tox060.pub2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.tox060.pub2","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones; the substituted uracil herbicides—bromacil, lenacil, and terbacil; the quaternary herbicides–paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines—atrazine and propazine; and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide, are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Other than the pyridine series of chemicals and the nitroso compounds, most of the chemicals reviewed here include significant new information since the last chapter review. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Alkylpyridines; \u0000aquatic toxicity; \u0000dimethylacetamide; \u0000dimethylformamide; \u0000genetic toxicity; \u0000herbicides; \u0000hydrazines; \u0000industrial solvents; \u0000nitrosamines; \u0000pesticides","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"111 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-08-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75618926","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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