Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX019
D. Gardner
Airborne contaminants in the workplace can include chemical, physical, and biological agents. Although the primary focus of the industrial hygienist and toxicologist in the past has been on the health effects of chemical and physical contaminants, there is renewed interest in the science of “aerobiology”—the study of airborne particles of biological origin. Millions of workers in hundreds of occupations are exposed to potential health hazards in their workplace because of substances they breathe in the air. Every year, an estimated 65,000 U.S. workers develop respiratory disease related to their jobs, and an estimated 25,000 persons die from occupational lung disease. Respiratory illness causes an estimated 657 million person-days of restricted activity and 324 million person-days of lost work. Occupational exposure to airborne particles (aerosols) is very common and may pose a potential hazard to human health because microbial cells are particulate matter, studies that deal with airborne microorganisms are concerned with aerosols. Many of the physical and chemical processes that describe aerosol behavior also apply to bioaerosols. The term bioaerosol is used to describe a colloidal suspension of liquid droplets or solid particles in air, that contain or have attached to them one or more living or dead organisms, certain products of bacterial and fungal metabolism, or other biological material. Bioaerosols are ubiquitous indoors and outdoors and may contain cell fragments, dust mites, animal dander, skin scales, and a wide variety of microscopic organisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, amoebae, and protozoa. Other nonliving biological substances (e.g., cotton dust, pollen, hemp, jute, sugarcane) also produce respiratory illness in workers. These are not considered in this chapter but have been reviewed elsewhere. This chapter focuses on those bioaerosols most likely to be related to the workplace, although nonoccupational sources can be prevalent. Bioaerosols such as house dust mites, animal dander, or cockroach products that are very important in inducing diseases like asthma may be referred to but are not discussed in detail because of their strong association with the home environment. Attention is given to infectious agents (and their products) because many working conditions are conducive to transmitting of such agents. Although bioaerosols generally represent fewer hazards than those of a physical or chemical nature, there are certain occupations where the risk of such exposures may be more prevalent. Occupational settings of concern include agriculture, saw mills, textile manufacturing, meat and other food processing, biotechnology, research laboratories, waste disposal, construction, and health-care institutions. The extent of health problems caused by bioaerosols in the workplace is difficult to estimate partly because of the wide array of agents that evoke a variety of human responses. The workpl
{"title":"Bioaerosols and Disease","authors":"D. Gardner","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX019","url":null,"abstract":"Airborne contaminants in the workplace can include chemical, physical, and biological agents. Although the primary focus of the industrial hygienist and toxicologist in the past has been on the health effects of chemical and physical contaminants, there is renewed interest in the science of “aerobiology”—the study of airborne particles of biological origin. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Millions of workers in hundreds of occupations are exposed to potential health hazards in their workplace because of substances they breathe in the air. Every year, an estimated 65,000 U.S. workers develop respiratory disease related to their jobs, and an estimated 25,000 persons die from occupational lung disease. Respiratory illness causes an estimated 657 million person-days of restricted activity and 324 million person-days of lost work. Occupational exposure to airborne particles (aerosols) is very common and may pose a potential hazard to human health because microbial cells are particulate matter, studies that deal with airborne microorganisms are concerned with aerosols. Many of the physical and chemical processes that describe aerosol behavior also apply to bioaerosols. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The term bioaerosol is used to describe a colloidal suspension of liquid droplets or solid particles in air, that contain or have attached to them one or more living or dead organisms, certain products of bacterial and fungal metabolism, or other biological material. Bioaerosols are ubiquitous indoors and outdoors and may contain cell fragments, dust mites, animal dander, skin scales, and a wide variety of microscopic organisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, amoebae, and protozoa. Other nonliving biological substances (e.g., cotton dust, pollen, hemp, jute, sugarcane) also produce respiratory illness in workers. These are not considered in this chapter but have been reviewed elsewhere. This chapter focuses on those bioaerosols most likely to be related to the workplace, although nonoccupational sources can be prevalent. Bioaerosols such as house dust mites, animal dander, or cockroach products that are very important in inducing diseases like asthma may be referred to but are not discussed in detail because of their strong association with the home environment. Attention is given to infectious agents (and their products) because many working conditions are conducive to transmitting of such agents. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Although bioaerosols generally represent fewer hazards than those of a physical or chemical nature, there are certain occupations where the risk of such exposures may be more prevalent. Occupational settings of concern include agriculture, saw mills, textile manufacturing, meat and other food processing, biotechnology, research laboratories, waste disposal, construction, and health-care institutions. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The extent of health problems caused by bioaerosols in the workplace is difficult to estimate partly because of the wide array of agents that evoke a variety of human responses. The workpl","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"87 1","pages":"679-711"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81012074","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX042
M. McDiarmid, K. Squibb
Uranium is a heavy, radioactive metal, the 92nd element in the periodic table, and a member of the actinide series. Its name and chemical symbol U are derived from the planet Uranus, discovered (1781) a few years before the element. A compound of uranium (uranium oxide) was discovered in the uranium ore pitchblende by M. H. Klaproth in 1789. Klaproth believed that he had isolated the element, but this was not achieved until 1841 when a French chemist, E. M. Peligot, reduced uranium tetrachloride with potassium in a platinum crucible to obtain elemental uranium. Uranium is not as rare as once believed. Widely distributed in the earth's crust, uranium occurs to the extent of about 0.0004%, making the metal more plentiful than mercury, antimony, or silver. Before World War II, uranium was of interest only to the chemists and physicists who studied the element as they would any other substance. With the advent of the nuclear age, uranium now occupies a key position in nuclear weapons and energy. The physical and chemical properties of uranium and some of its compounds are listed. To enhance its use in reactors and nuclear weapons, uranium undergoes an industrial enrichment process that increases the 235U content from 0.7% found naturally to a content between 2 and 90%. 235U is the only natural uranium isotope that can sustain the nuclear chain reaction required for reactors and weapons processes. No deposits of concentrated uranium ore have been discovered. As a result, uranium must be extracted from ores containing less than 0.1% U. Because it is necessary to use low-grade ores, substantial and complex processing of these ores is required to obtain pure uranium. Usually it is necessary to preconcentrate the ore by grinding and flotation or similar processes. Hazardous exposures in the uranium industry begin in the mining process. Hazards are of two types, chemical and radiological; of the two, radiation is the more dangerous. Effective ventilation control measures have reduced the radiation exposures in the larger mines, but far less satisfactory radiation-exposure conditions exist in small mines without the benefit of ventilation. In addition to the alpha-particle radiation hazard from uranium in the ore, the most hazardous elements are radon gas and its particulate daughters, RaA and RaC, all alpha emitters. Some mine waters are high in radon and thus are an additional exposure source and should not be used for wet drilling. In the mines some beta and gamma exposures from RaB, RaC, and Ra also occur but are of relatively minor importance. The chemical toxicity of uranium is similar to other heavy metals. Storage in the skeleton and excretion via the urine are accompanied by renal toxicity and are discussed. Hazards in milling uranium to produce a concentrate were thought to be relatively minor because a wet process was used. However, some chronic health effects, including nonmalignant respiratory disease a
铀是一种重的放射性金属，是元素周期表中的第92种元素，也是锕系元素的一员。它的名字和化学符号U来源于天王星，天王星在元素发现前几年(1781年)被发现。1789年，克拉普罗斯在铀矿沥青铀矿中发现了一种铀化合物(氧化铀)。克拉普罗斯认为他已经分离出了这种元素，但直到1841年，法国化学家e·m·佩利戈(E. M. Peligot)在铂坩埚中用钾还原了四氯化铀，得到了元素铀，才实现了这一目标。铀并不像人们曾经认为的那样稀有。铀广泛分布在地壳中，其含量约为0.0004%，比汞、锑或银更丰富。在第二次世界大战之前，只有化学家和物理学家对铀感兴趣，他们像研究其他物质一样研究这种元素。随着核时代的到来，铀在核武器和能源中占有关键地位。列出了铀及其某些化合物的物理和化学性质。为了加强其在反应堆和核武器中的应用，铀要经过工业浓缩过程，将235U的含量从自然含量的0.7%提高到2%至90%之间。235U是唯一能够维持反应堆和武器过程所需的核链式反应的天然铀同位素。没有发现浓缩铀矿的矿床。因此，必须从含铀量低于0.1%的矿石中提取铀。因为必须使用低品位矿石，所以需要对这些矿石进行大量复杂的加工才能获得纯铀。通常需要通过磨矿、浮选或类似的工艺对矿石进行预浓缩。铀工业的危险暴露始于采矿过程。危害有两种类型，化学和放射性;两者之中，辐射更为危险。有效的通风控制措施减少了大型矿山的辐射暴露，但没有通风的小矿山的辐射暴露情况远不理想。除了矿石中铀的α粒子辐射危害外，最危险的元素是氡气及其子粒子RaA和RaC，它们都是α辐射源。有些矿井水的氡含量很高，因此是一个额外的暴露源，不应用于湿钻。在矿山中也会发生来自RaB、RaC和Ra的β和γ暴露，但其重要性相对较小。铀的化学毒性与其他重金属相似。在骨骼中的储存和通过尿液排泄伴随着肾毒性，并被讨论。由于采用了湿法工艺，碾磨铀以生产精矿的危险被认为相对较小。然而，一些慢性健康影响，包括非恶性呼吸系统疾病和肾小管生化异常，已经在这些工人中被记录下来并进行了讨论。铀的各种强制性和自愿健康接触限值是根据其化学和放射毒性制定的。管理机构包括国际、国家和州组织。这里总结了一些有关暴露限度的法规和准则，但提醒读者查阅其他来源，以确保健康保护和法规遵从性。铀是不同寻常的元素，因为它具有化学和放射性危害。钍是锕系元素系列中的第二种元素，作为一种不稳定的放射性元素存在于地壳中，它通过α辐射衰变，产生一系列短暂的子产物，最终形成稳定的铅同位素。钍被用作原子燃料的来源，用于生产白炽灯罩，作为镁、钨和镍的合金元素，过去还被用作全身放射学研究的诊断剂。钍对人体主要是一种放射性危害;然而，它的化学毒性也必须考虑。关键词:铀;铀化合物;钍;钍化合物;氡;氧化物;核燃料技术;组织;吸烟;矿工;Non-Miners;铀矿;Thorotrast;贫铀;铀工厂;分布
{"title":"Uranium and Thorium","authors":"M. McDiarmid, K. Squibb","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX042","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX042","url":null,"abstract":"Uranium is a heavy, radioactive metal, the 92nd element in the periodic table, and a member of the actinide series. Its name and chemical symbol U are derived from the planet Uranus, discovered (1781) a few years before the element. A compound of uranium (uranium oxide) was discovered in the uranium ore pitchblende by M. H. Klaproth in 1789. Klaproth believed that he had isolated the element, but this was not achieved until 1841 when a French chemist, E. M. Peligot, reduced uranium tetrachloride with potassium in a platinum crucible to obtain elemental uranium. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Uranium is not as rare as once believed. Widely distributed in the earth's crust, uranium occurs to the extent of about 0.0004%, making the metal more plentiful than mercury, antimony, or silver. Before World War II, uranium was of interest only to the chemists and physicists who studied the element as they would any other substance. With the advent of the nuclear age, uranium now occupies a key position in nuclear weapons and energy. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The physical and chemical properties of uranium and some of its compounds are listed. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000To enhance its use in reactors and nuclear weapons, uranium undergoes an industrial enrichment process that increases the 235U content from 0.7% found naturally to a content between 2 and 90%. 235U is the only natural uranium isotope that can sustain the nuclear chain reaction required for reactors and weapons processes. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000No deposits of concentrated uranium ore have been discovered. As a result, uranium must be extracted from ores containing less than 0.1% U. Because it is necessary to use low-grade ores, substantial and complex processing of these ores is required to obtain pure uranium. Usually it is necessary to preconcentrate the ore by grinding and flotation or similar processes. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Hazardous exposures in the uranium industry begin in the mining process. Hazards are of two types, chemical and radiological; of the two, radiation is the more dangerous. Effective ventilation control measures have reduced the radiation exposures in the larger mines, but far less satisfactory radiation-exposure conditions exist in small mines without the benefit of ventilation. In addition to the alpha-particle radiation hazard from uranium in the ore, the most hazardous elements are radon gas and its particulate daughters, RaA and RaC, all alpha emitters. Some mine waters are high in radon and thus are an additional exposure source and should not be used for wet drilling. In the mines some beta and gamma exposures from RaB, RaC, and Ra also occur but are of relatively minor importance. The chemical toxicity of uranium is similar to other heavy metals. Storage in the skeleton and excretion via the urine are accompanied by renal toxicity and are discussed. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Hazards in milling uranium to produce a concentrate were thought to be relatively minor because a wet process was used. However, some chronic health effects, including nonmalignant respiratory disease a","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"7 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87671700","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX054
C. Doepker
Although aliphatic nitro compounds, aliphatic nitrates, and aliphatic nitrites have several features in common (nitrogen-oxygen grouping, explosiveness, methemoglobin formation), there are significant differences in their toxic effects. Some of their attributes are summarized. The esters of nitric and nitrous acid, whose nitrogen is linked to carbon through oxygen, are very similar in their pharmacological effects. Both produce methemoglobinemia and vascular dilatation with hypotension and headache. These effects are transient. None of the series has appreciable irritant properties. Pathological changes occur in animals only after high levels of exposure and are generally nonspecific and reversible. The nitric acid esters of the monofunctional and lower polyfunctional alcohols are absorbed through the skin. Information is not available on the skin absorption of alkyl nitrites. Members of both groups are well absorbed from the mucous membranes and lungs. Heinz body formation has been observed with the nitrates but not with the nitrites. Nitro compounds, like nitrates and nitrites, cause methemoglobinemia in animals. Heinz body formation parallels this activity within the series. Although some members are metabolized to nitrate and nitrite, there is no significant effect on blood pressure or respiration. As with the lower nitrates and nitrites, anesthetic symptoms are observed in animals during acute exposures, but these occur late. The prominent effect is irritation of the skin, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract. This is most marked with chlorinated nitroparaffins and nitroolefins. In addition to respiratory tract injury, cellular damage may be observed in the liver and kidneys. Skin absorption is negligible except for the nitroolefins. The nitramines have entirely different activity. RDX is a convulsant for humans and animals. Skin absorption, irritation, vasodilatation, methemoglobin formation, and permanent pathological damage are either insignificant or absent after repeated doses. Transient illness has been associated with the industrial use or manufacture of these materials, but fatalities and chronic intoxication have been uncommon. Some members of each group present extremely high fire and explosion hazards. Keywords: Aliphatic nitro compounds; Aliphatic nitrates; Aliphatic nitrites; Nitroolefins; Alkyl nitrites
{"title":"Aliphatic Nitro, Nitrate, And Nitrite Compounds","authors":"C. Doepker","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX054","url":null,"abstract":"Although aliphatic nitro compounds, aliphatic nitrates, and aliphatic nitrites have several features in common (nitrogen-oxygen grouping, explosiveness, methemoglobin formation), there are significant differences in their toxic effects. Some of their attributes are summarized. The esters of nitric and nitrous acid, whose nitrogen is linked to carbon through oxygen, are very similar in their pharmacological effects. Both produce methemoglobinemia and vascular dilatation with hypotension and headache. These effects are transient. None of the series has appreciable irritant properties. Pathological changes occur in animals only after high levels of exposure and are generally nonspecific and reversible. The nitric acid esters of the monofunctional and lower polyfunctional alcohols are absorbed through the skin. Information is not available on the skin absorption of alkyl nitrites. Members of both groups are well absorbed from the mucous membranes and lungs. Heinz body formation has been observed with the nitrates but not with the nitrites. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Nitro compounds, like nitrates and nitrites, cause methemoglobinemia in animals. Heinz body formation parallels this activity within the series. Although some members are metabolized to nitrate and nitrite, there is no significant effect on blood pressure or respiration. As with the lower nitrates and nitrites, anesthetic symptoms are observed in animals during acute exposures, but these occur late. The prominent effect is irritation of the skin, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract. This is most marked with chlorinated nitroparaffins and nitroolefins. In addition to respiratory tract injury, cellular damage may be observed in the liver and kidneys. Skin absorption is negligible except for the nitroolefins. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The nitramines have entirely different activity. RDX is a convulsant for humans and animals. Skin absorption, irritation, vasodilatation, methemoglobin formation, and permanent pathological damage are either insignificant or absent after repeated doses. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Transient illness has been associated with the industrial use or manufacture of these materials, but fatalities and chronic intoxication have been uncommon. Some members of each group present extremely high fire and explosion hazards. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Aliphatic nitro compounds; \u0000Aliphatic nitrates; \u0000Aliphatic nitrites; \u0000Nitroolefins; \u0000Alkyl nitrites","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"41 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85731305","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX007
D. Nebert, A. Roe
What is “an environmental disease?” Why are some individuals and some families affected more easily than others? Indeed, even within families, why are some members affected whereas others are not? When taking the same dose of a prescribed medication, why do some patients—but not others—experience side effects? Why do only 7 out of every 100 cigarette smokers die of lung cancer? The answer to each of these questions involves interindividual genetic variation and the environment. We begin this chapter with brief descriptions of the reasons for environmental illnesses. Next, genetic terminology and a definition of “susceptibility genes” are covered—followed by our current understanding of the drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and the receptors that regulate DME genes. Subsequently, we provide a number of examples and brief summaries of the present-day knowledge of many of these polymorphisms. Last, we speculate as to why these human polymorphisms might exist in the first place. Many of the references cited include reviews in which the reader will find numerous additional studies cited and details described. Keywords: Genetic predisposition; Genetics; Traits; Polymorphism; Human genome; Reverse genetics; Forward genetics; LOD scores; Environmental genetics; Susceptibility genes; Drug metabolizing enzymes; Ecogenetic differences; Adaptation; Synergy
{"title":"Ecogenetics: The Study of Gene–Environment Interactions","authors":"D. Nebert, A. Roe","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX007","url":null,"abstract":"What is “an environmental disease?” Why are some individuals and some families affected more easily than others? Indeed, even within families, why are some members affected whereas others are not? When taking the same dose of a prescribed medication, why do some patients—but not others—experience side effects? Why do only 7 out of every 100 cigarette smokers die of lung cancer? The answer to each of these questions involves interindividual genetic variation and the environment. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000We begin this chapter with brief descriptions of the reasons for environmental illnesses. Next, genetic terminology and a definition of “susceptibility genes” are covered—followed by our current understanding of the drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and the receptors that regulate DME genes. Subsequently, we provide a number of examples and brief summaries of the present-day knowledge of many of these polymorphisms. Last, we speculate as to why these human polymorphisms might exist in the first place. Many of the references cited include reviews in which the reader will find numerous additional studies cited and details described. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Genetic predisposition; \u0000Genetics; \u0000Traits; \u0000Polymorphism; \u0000Human genome; \u0000Reverse genetics; \u0000Forward genetics; \u0000LOD scores; \u0000Environmental genetics; \u0000Susceptibility genes; \u0000Drug metabolizing enzymes; \u0000Ecogenetic differences; \u0000Adaptation; \u0000Synergy","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"02 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86462447","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX108
B. Levin
Seventy-six percent of the people that died in structural fires in 1990 died from the inhalation of toxic combustion products, not from burns (1). This percentage has been rising by about one percentage point per year since 1979. Although total deaths in fires are declining, the percentage attributed to smoke inhalation has increased. An area of research called combustion toxicity has evolved to study the adverse health effects caused by smoke or fire atmospheres. According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), smoke consists of “the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion” (2) and therefore, includes combustion products. In this chapter, a fire atmosphere is defined as all the effluents generated by the thermal decomposition of materials or products regardless of whether that effluent is produced under smoldering, nonflaming, or flaming conditions. The objectives of combustion toxicity research are to identify potentially harmful products from the thermal degradation of materials, to determine the best measurement methods for the identification of the toxicants as well as the degree of toxicity, to determine the effect of different fire exposures on the composition of the toxic combustion products, to predict the toxicity of the combustion atmospheres based on the concentrations and the interaction of the toxic products, and to establish the physiological effects of such products on living organisms. The ultimate goals of this field of research are to reduce human fire fatalities due to smoke inhalation, to determine effective treatments for survivors, and to prevent unnecessary suffering of fire casualties caused by smoke inhalation. Other reviews of various aspects of this subject can be found in Refs 3–8. Keywords: Smoke; Combustion; Fire deaths; Toxic gases; Particulates; Toxic potency; Fire hazard; Fire risk; Toxicity assessment; Suppressants; Test methods; Predictive models
{"title":"Smoke and Combustion Products","authors":"B. Levin","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX108","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX108","url":null,"abstract":"Seventy-six percent of the people that died in structural fires in 1990 died from the inhalation of toxic combustion products, not from burns (1). This percentage has been rising by about one percentage point per year since 1979. Although total deaths in fires are declining, the percentage attributed to smoke inhalation has increased. An area of research called combustion toxicity has evolved to study the adverse health effects caused by smoke or fire atmospheres. According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), smoke consists of “the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion” (2) and therefore, includes combustion products. In this chapter, a fire atmosphere is defined as all the effluents generated by the thermal decomposition of materials or products regardless of whether that effluent is produced under smoldering, nonflaming, or flaming conditions. The objectives of combustion toxicity research are to identify potentially harmful products from the thermal degradation of materials, to determine the best measurement methods for the identification of the toxicants as well as the degree of toxicity, to determine the effect of different fire exposures on the composition of the toxic combustion products, to predict the toxicity of the combustion atmospheres based on the concentrations and the interaction of the toxic products, and to establish the physiological effects of such products on living organisms. The ultimate goals of this field of research are to reduce human fire fatalities due to smoke inhalation, to determine effective treatments for survivors, and to prevent unnecessary suffering of fire casualties caused by smoke inhalation. Other reviews of various aspects of this subject can be found in Refs 3–8. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Smoke; \u0000Combustion; \u0000Fire deaths; \u0000Toxic gases; \u0000Particulates; \u0000Toxic potency; \u0000Fire hazard; \u0000Fire risk; \u0000Toxicity assessment; \u0000Suppressants; \u0000Test methods; \u0000Predictive models","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"197 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79853878","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX043
W. Wells, Vickie L. Wells
The lanthanides (or lanthanons) are a group of 15 elements of atomic numbers from 57 through 71 in which scandium (atomic number 21) and yttrium (atomic number 39) are sometimes included. The lanthanide series proper is that group of chemical elements that follow lanthanum in its group IIIB column position of the periodic table. Their distinguishing atomic feature is that they fill the 4f electronic subshell. Actually, only those elements with atomic numbers 58–71 are lanthanides. Most chemists also include lanthanum in the series because, although it does not fill the 4f subshell, its properties are very much like those of the lanthanides. The elements scandium and yttrium are also known as the “rare earths” because they were originally discovered together with the lanthanides in rare minerals and isolated as oxides, or “earths.” In comparison with many other elements, however, the rare earths are not really rare, except for promethium, which has only radioactive isotopes. Yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, and neodymium are all more abundant than lead in the earth's crust. All except promethium, which probably does not occur in nature, are more abundant than cadmium. The relative abundance and atomic numbers are tabulated and the more common lanthanide compounds are listed. Scandium is a silvery white metallic chemical element, the first member of the first transition-metal series in the periodic table. The name is derived from Scandinavia, where the element was discovered in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite. In 1876, L. F. Nilson prepared about 2 g of high purity scandium oxide. It was subsequently established that scandium corresponds to the element “ekaboron,” predicted by Mendeleyev on the basis of a gap in the periodic table. Scandium occurs in small quantities in more than 800 minerals and causes the blue color of aquamarine beryl. Yttrium is one of four chemical elements (the others are erbium, terbium, and ytterbium) named after Ytterby, a village in Sweden that is rich in unusual minerals and rare earths. Yttrium is a metal with a silvery luster and properties closely resembling those of rare earth metals. It is the first member of the second series of transition metals. Yttrium is found in several minerals and is produced primarily from the ore material xenotime. Lanthanum is a white, malleable metal; it is the first member of the third series of transition metals, and the first of the rare earths. Lanthanum is found with other lanthanides in the ore minerals monazite, bastnaesite, and xenotime, and in other minerals. It was discovered in 1839 by the Swedish chemist Carl G. Mosander. Scientists have created many radioactive isotopes of lanthanum. The physical and chemical properties of the lanthanides are given. The unique characteristic of the chemistry of the lanthanides is their similarity. The elements occur together in nature in large part due to their chemical similarity. The exception is promethi
镧系元素(或镧系元素)是一组原子序数从57到71的15种元素，其中有时包括钪(原子序数21)和钇(原子序数39)。镧系系是指在元素周期表的IIIB族列位中紧跟镧之后的一组化学元素。它们独特的原子特征是它们填满了4f电子亚层。实际上，只有那些原子序数为58-71的元素才是镧系元素。大多数化学家还把镧也包括在这个系列中，因为尽管它不填满4f亚壳层，但它的性质与镧系元素非常相似。元素钪和钇也被称为“稀土”，因为它们最初是与稀有矿物中的镧系元素一起被发现的，并作为氧化物或“地球”被分离出来。然而，与许多其他元素相比，稀土其实并不稀有，除了只有放射性同位素的钷。钇、镧、铈和钕在地壳中的含量都比铅丰富。除了自然界中可能不存在的钷以外，其他元素的含量都比镉高。将相对丰度和原子序数制成表格，并列出较常见的镧系化合物。钪是一种银白色的金属化学元素，是元素周期表中第一个过渡金属系列的第一个成员。这个名字来源于斯堪的纳维亚半岛，在那里，这种元素是在矿物永长石和钆长石中发现的。1876年，l·f·尼尔森制备了约2g的高纯氧化钪。随后确定钪对应于门捷列夫根据元素周期表中的一个间隙所预测的元素“ekaboron”。钪少量存在于800多种矿物中，使海蓝宝石呈现蓝色。钇是四种化学元素中的一种(其他三种是铒、铽和镱)，它是以瑞典一个盛产稀有矿物和稀土的村庄Ytterby命名的。钇是一种具有银色光泽的金属，其性质与稀土金属非常相似。它是第二系列过渡金属的第一个成员。钇存在于几种矿物中，主要由矿物材料xenotime产生。镧是一种白色的、可延展的金属;它是过渡金属第三系的第一个成员，也是稀土的第一个成员。镧与其他镧系元素一起存在于矿石独居石、氟碳铈矿和钇铝钇石以及其他矿物中。1839年，瑞典化学家Carl G. Mosander发现了它。科学家们已经制造出许多镧的放射性同位素。给出了镧系元素的物理和化学性质。镧系元素化学的独特特征是它们的相似性。这些元素在自然界中一起出现，很大程度上是由于它们在化学上的相似性。唯一的例外是钷，它是放射性的，自然中可能只有微量存在，如果真的存在的话。这些元素极难分离。现代离子交换和重复分式结晶技术的发展，导致纯度(99.99%)材料的可用性。所有的镧系元素都是银白色的，熔点很高，非常活泼。镧系元素离子形式的溶解度差异似乎影响了它们在生物系统中的代谢命运。一般来说，镧系元素的毒性随着原子序数的增加而降低，这可能是因为较重的镧系元素离子具有更大的溶解度和离子稳定性。人们对钪的化学性质所知相对较少，尽管它并不特别罕见。它的化学性质在许多方面与铝相似。钇和钪很相似。它也是一种活性金属。吸入镧系元素的肺毒性一直是争论的主题。放射性元素与稳定元素在镧系相关的进行性肺间质纤维化发展中的相对贡献一直受到质疑。虽然镧系尘埃与放射性物质的污染可能会加速和加强病理反应，这取决于所遇到的放射性的形式和剂量，但几乎没有证据表明，职业上遇到的镧系尘埃的放射性污染水平足以作为肺部疾病的一个危险因素。没有建议任何其他镧系元素的标准，因为要么缺乏制定标准的适当数据，例如吸入研究，要么缺乏对单个镧系元素的研究。然而，由于越来越多的证据表明镧系元素可诱导纤维化及其使用范围的扩大，暴露量可能应限制在1 mg/m3。
{"title":"The Lanthanides, Rare Earth Metals","authors":"W. Wells, Vickie L. Wells","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX043","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX043","url":null,"abstract":"The lanthanides (or lanthanons) are a group of 15 elements of atomic numbers from 57 through 71 in which scandium (atomic number 21) and yttrium (atomic number 39) are sometimes included. The lanthanide series proper is that group of chemical elements that follow lanthanum in its group IIIB column position of the periodic table. Their distinguishing atomic feature is that they fill the 4f electronic subshell. Actually, only those elements with atomic numbers 58–71 are lanthanides. Most chemists also include lanthanum in the series because, although it does not fill the 4f subshell, its properties are very much like those of the lanthanides. The elements scandium and yttrium are also known as the “rare earths” because they were originally discovered together with the lanthanides in rare minerals and isolated as oxides, or “earths.” In comparison with many other elements, however, the rare earths are not really rare, except for promethium, which has only radioactive isotopes. Yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, and neodymium are all more abundant than lead in the earth's crust. All except promethium, which probably does not occur in nature, are more abundant than cadmium. The relative abundance and atomic numbers are tabulated and the more common lanthanide compounds are listed. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Scandium is a silvery white metallic chemical element, the first member of the first transition-metal series in the periodic table. The name is derived from Scandinavia, where the element was discovered in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite. In 1876, L. F. Nilson prepared about 2 g of high purity scandium oxide. It was subsequently established that scandium corresponds to the element “ekaboron,” predicted by Mendeleyev on the basis of a gap in the periodic table. Scandium occurs in small quantities in more than 800 minerals and causes the blue color of aquamarine beryl. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Yttrium is one of four chemical elements (the others are erbium, terbium, and ytterbium) named after Ytterby, a village in Sweden that is rich in unusual minerals and rare earths. Yttrium is a metal with a silvery luster and properties closely resembling those of rare earth metals. It is the first member of the second series of transition metals. Yttrium is found in several minerals and is produced primarily from the ore material xenotime. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Lanthanum is a white, malleable metal; it is the first member of the third series of transition metals, and the first of the rare earths. Lanthanum is found with other lanthanides in the ore minerals monazite, bastnaesite, and xenotime, and in other minerals. It was discovered in 1839 by the Swedish chemist Carl G. Mosander. Scientists have created many radioactive isotopes of lanthanum. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The physical and chemical properties of the lanthanides are given. The unique characteristic of the chemistry of the lanthanides is their similarity. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The elements occur together in nature in large part due to their chemical similarity. The exception is promethi","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81684943","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX020
D. Hunt, J. Tulis
Occupationally acquired infections from bloodborne pathogens have been recognized since 1949, when a laboratory worker was reported to have been infected with “serum hepatitis” in a blood bank. In the early 1970s, serological tests became available for the diagnosis of infection with hepatitis A and hepatitis B viruses. Seroprevalence studies were then able to document the distinct epidemiology of these two viruses and the extent of transmission to healthcare workers. For example, Skinhoj reported subsequent increases in occurences of laboratory-acquired hepatitis and found a sevenfold higher rate of hepatitis in laboratory workers when compared with the general population. With the development of diagnostic tests for other bloodborne agents (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) and hepatitis C virus), studies continued to show that occupational infections with bloodborne pathogens were occurring. The potential occult infectivity of blood has been emphasized with the documentation of 54 occupationally transmitted infections with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) in the United States. Since the first occupational transmission was reported in 1984, healthcare and laboratory administrators, as well as those in the public sector, have reexamined the infection control aspects of their work practices and have begun to analyze and develop equipment and procedures to minimize exposures. Because infection with HIV and other bloodborne pathogens is not always clinically apparent, and the infectious potential of blood and other body fluids is not always known, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommended “universal blood and body fluid precautions” in 1987. This approach emphasizes that blood and body fluid precautions should be consistently used for all patients and their clinical specimens and tissues. The “universal precautions” strategy has formed the foundation for federal guidelines through the CDC and regulations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Both organizations recognize that this practical approach to safety will not only minimize the risk of occupationally acquired HIV-1 infection but will also serve to protect against occupational infection with other bloodborne pathogens such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human T-cell leukemia viruses I and II, HIV-2, and, to a large extent, prions (agents causing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease). The risks to healthcare and laboratory workers are dynamic because of the availability of vaccines, antiviral treatment, and recognition of new agents and interactions with old ones. It is the purpose of this chapter to provide an overview of the epidemiology, risk of transmission, and the recommended or regulated strategies to prevent occupational transmission of HIV and other bloodborne pathogens. Keywords: Human Immunodeficiency virus 1; Environmental survival; Epidemiology; Occupational HIV-1 transmission; Risk assessment; Hepatitis
{"title":"Bloodborne Pathogens In the Workplace","authors":"D. Hunt, J. Tulis","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX020","url":null,"abstract":"Occupationally acquired infections from bloodborne pathogens have been recognized since 1949, when a laboratory worker was reported to have been infected with “serum hepatitis” in a blood bank. In the early 1970s, serological tests became available for the diagnosis of infection with hepatitis A and hepatitis B viruses. Seroprevalence studies were then able to document the distinct epidemiology of these two viruses and the extent of transmission to healthcare workers. For example, Skinhoj reported subsequent increases in occurences of laboratory-acquired hepatitis and found a sevenfold higher rate of hepatitis in laboratory workers when compared with the general population. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000With the development of diagnostic tests for other bloodborne agents (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) and hepatitis C virus), studies continued to show that occupational infections with bloodborne pathogens were occurring. The potential occult infectivity of blood has been emphasized with the documentation of 54 occupationally transmitted infections with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) in the United States. Since the first occupational transmission was reported in 1984, healthcare and laboratory administrators, as well as those in the public sector, have reexamined the infection control aspects of their work practices and have begun to analyze and develop equipment and procedures to minimize exposures. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Because infection with HIV and other bloodborne pathogens is not always clinically apparent, and the infectious potential of blood and other body fluids is not always known, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommended “universal blood and body fluid precautions” in 1987. This approach emphasizes that blood and body fluid precautions should be consistently used for all patients and their clinical specimens and tissues. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The “universal precautions” strategy has formed the foundation for federal guidelines through the CDC and regulations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Both organizations recognize that this practical approach to safety will not only minimize the risk of occupationally acquired HIV-1 infection but will also serve to protect against occupational infection with other bloodborne pathogens such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human T-cell leukemia viruses I and II, HIV-2, and, to a large extent, prions (agents causing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease). \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The risks to healthcare and laboratory workers are dynamic because of the availability of vaccines, antiviral treatment, and recognition of new agents and interactions with old ones. It is the purpose of this chapter to provide an overview of the epidemiology, risk of transmission, and the recommended or regulated strategies to prevent occupational transmission of HIV and other bloodborne pathogens. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Human Immunodeficiency virus 1; \u0000Environmental survival; \u0000Epidemiology; \u0000Occupational HIV-1 transmission; \u0000Risk assessment; \u0000Hepatitis","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"124 1","pages":"713-746"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80130534","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX010
G. Rachamin
More than 70,000 chemicals are currently registered in the chemical substances inventory under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in the United States (U.S.), and every year new chemicals are introduced to the market. Each chemical can produce toxic effects that may be reversible or irreversible. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can result in a wide range of adverse health outcomes, for example pulmonary disease skin irritation and sensitization, neurotoxicity, lung and liver function impairment, cancer, and hereditary diseases. Toxicological data provide the basis for evaluating the potential health risks of chemicals to humans. Information from human and animal studies is used to characterize the nature of the toxic effects of chemicals and to predict their risk to human health under given exposures. The ultimate goal of using data from such studies is to determine “safe” levels of human exposure to toxic substances. Because it is not possible to assure absolute safety to everyone for any chemical, “safe” does not imply risk-free but a level of risk that is acceptable in our society. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the process of chemical safety evaluation in the context of the regulatory risk assessment paradigm from the perspective of occupational toxicology. Toxicological data from studies of the chemical in humans and animals, including physicochemical, toxicokinetic, and mechanistic data, are used in this evaluation. First, the adverse effects are identified and categorized by toxic end point. Next, the dose–response relationship for each end point is characterized, and the overall evidence is evaluated to determine the hazard class of the substance. If the toxicological database for a chemical is adequate, potential health risks to humans are then estimated, and exposure limits are derived by using risk assessment methodologies. Depending on the dose—response relationship (threshold or nonthreshold) of the adverse effect that is observed at the lowest dose (critical effect), three general risk assessment approaches can be applied: safety/uncertainty factor, low-dose extrapolation risk model, and a unified benchmark dose approach. Note that various risk assessment procedures have been developed over the years and continue to evolve as science advances. A new terminology has also emerged in large part from environmental risk assessment work that focuses on community exposures to chemicals. Toxicological principles are an integral part of chemical risk assessment, so basic toxicological concepts and references are included. Keywords: Toxicological data; Toxicity studies; Classification; Characterization; Dose-response relationships; Exposure limit derivation; Global harmonization; Hazard classification system; Uncertainty; Adequacy; Database; Structure—activity relationships
{"title":"Use of Toxicological Data in Evaluating Chemical Safety","authors":"G. Rachamin","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX010","url":null,"abstract":"More than 70,000 chemicals are currently registered in the chemical substances inventory under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in the United States (U.S.), and every year new chemicals are introduced to the market. Each chemical can produce toxic effects that may be reversible or irreversible. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can result in a wide range of adverse health outcomes, for example pulmonary disease skin irritation and sensitization, neurotoxicity, lung and liver function impairment, cancer, and hereditary diseases. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Toxicological data provide the basis for evaluating the potential health risks of chemicals to humans. Information from human and animal studies is used to characterize the nature of the toxic effects of chemicals and to predict their risk to human health under given exposures. The ultimate goal of using data from such studies is to determine “safe” levels of human exposure to toxic substances. Because it is not possible to assure absolute safety to everyone for any chemical, “safe” does not imply risk-free but a level of risk that is acceptable in our society. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the process of chemical safety evaluation in the context of the regulatory risk assessment paradigm from the perspective of occupational toxicology. Toxicological data from studies of the chemical in humans and animals, including physicochemical, toxicokinetic, and mechanistic data, are used in this evaluation. First, the adverse effects are identified and categorized by toxic end point. Next, the dose–response relationship for each end point is characterized, and the overall evidence is evaluated to determine the hazard class of the substance. If the toxicological database for a chemical is adequate, potential health risks to humans are then estimated, and exposure limits are derived by using risk assessment methodologies. Depending on the dose—response relationship (threshold or nonthreshold) of the adverse effect that is observed at the lowest dose (critical effect), three general risk assessment approaches can be applied: safety/uncertainty factor, low-dose extrapolation risk model, and a unified benchmark dose approach. Note that various risk assessment procedures have been developed over the years and continue to evolve as science advances. A new terminology has also emerged in large part from environmental risk assessment work that focuses on community exposures to chemicals. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Toxicological principles are an integral part of chemical risk assessment, so basic toxicological concepts and references are included. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Toxicological data; \u0000Toxicity studies; \u0000Classification; \u0000Characterization; \u0000Dose-response relationships; \u0000Exposure limit derivation; \u0000Global harmonization; \u0000Hazard classification system; \u0000Uncertainty; \u0000Adequacy; \u0000Database; \u0000Structure—activity relationships","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90750179","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2001-04-16DOI: 10.1002/0471435139.TOX060
H. J. Trochimowicz, G. Kennedy, N. Krivanek
This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59. Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds. Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones, the substituted uracils herbicides: bromacil, lenacil, terbacil; the quaternary herbicides: paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines: atrazine and propazine and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine. Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce. Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment. Keywords: Alkylpyridines; Genetic toxicity; Herbicides; Aquatic toxicity; Nitrosamines; Hydrazines; Pesticides; Industrial solvents; Dimethlacetamide; Dimethylformamide
{"title":"Alkylpyridines and Miscellaneous Organic Nitrogen Compounds","authors":"H. J. Trochimowicz, G. Kennedy, N. Krivanek","doi":"10.1002/0471435139.TOX060","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/0471435139.TOX060","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones, the substituted uracils herbicides: bromacil, lenacil, terbacil; the quaternary herbicides: paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines: atrazine and propazine and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment. \u0000 \u0000 \u0000Keywords: \u0000 \u0000Alkylpyridines; \u0000Genetic toxicity; \u0000Herbicides; \u0000Aquatic toxicity; \u0000Nitrosamines; \u0000Hydrazines; \u0000Pesticides; \u0000Industrial solvents; \u0000Dimethlacetamide; \u0000Dimethylformamide","PeriodicalId":19820,"journal":{"name":"Patty's Toxicology","volume":"227 1","pages":"1-158"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2001-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89191703","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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