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A scoping review of transmission models for soil-transmitted helminth infections to underpin the development of a transmission model for Strongyloides stercoralis. 对土壤传播蠕虫感染的传播模式进行范围审查,以支持开发盘尾丝虫的传播模式。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-15 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001392
Mackrina Winslow, Juan Pablo Villanueva-Cabezas, Vito Colella, Patricia T Campbell

Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections afflict people worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. Strongyloides stercoralis is distinctive from other STH nematodes by its complex life cycle features of autoinfection, parthenogenesis, and environmental reproduction. This scoping review aims to identify the structures, features, and techniques employed in existing STH models, emphasizing their potential application in describing S. stercoralis infection dynamics. A comprehensive search was conducted in the Medline, Embase, and Scopus databases for studies published until 14 June 2024. A total of 47 studies presenting a new model or novel adaptation of an existing model to human STH infection transmission were identified: only one described S. stercoralis transmission in humans. The identified models were predominantly deterministic and focused on the dynamics of mean worm load within hosts and the infectiousness of the environmental reservoir. One model addressed transmission in multi-host scenarios, as not all STH transmission cycles involve multiple hosts. Models were frequently used to simulate the effectiveness of mass drug administration, including drug efficacy and treatment coverage, while water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), health education, and vaccination were less explored. Given the limitation of individual-level data, compartmental models may be a reasonable starting point for S. stercoralis transmission. For a comprehensive understanding, incorporating parasite life cycle features into the model, exploring multi-host dynamics, including a diverse range of host heterogeneities, and assessing the impact of climatic factors like rainfall and land surface temperature on parasite survival in the environment may be beneficial, especially in settings where their importance is notable.

土壤传播的蠕虫(STH)感染困扰着世界各地的人们,特别是在热带和亚热带地区。粪圆线虫与其他STH线虫的不同之处在于其复杂的生命周期特征,包括自身感染、孤雌生殖和环境繁殖。这篇综述旨在确定现有STH模型的结构、特征和技术,强调它们在描述粪球菌感染动力学方面的潜在应用。在Medline、Embase和Scopus数据库中进行了全面的检索,检索截止到2024年6月14日发表的研究。共有47项研究提出了人类STH感染传播的新模型或对现有模型的新适应,其中只有一项研究描述了粪虫在人类中的传播。所确定的模型主要是确定性的,并且侧重于宿主内平均蠕虫负荷的动态和环境水库的传染性。其中一个模型解决了多主机场景下的传输问题,因为并非所有的STH传输周期都涉及多个主机。模型经常用于模拟大规模药物给药的有效性,包括药物疗效和治疗覆盖率,而对水、环境卫生和个人卫生(WASH)、健康教育和疫苗接种的探索较少。鉴于个体水平数据的局限性,区室模型可能是粪球菌传播的合理起点。为了全面理解,将寄生虫生命周期特征纳入模型,探索多宿主动态,包括多种宿主异质性,以及评估降雨和地表温度等气候因素对环境中寄生虫生存的影响可能是有益的,特别是在它们的重要性显著的环境中。
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引用次数: 0
Host and geographically related genetic variation in species of Cloacina (Nematoda: Strongyloidea) from western and eastern grey kangaroos, Macropus fuliginosus and M. giganteus (Marsupialia: Macropodidae). 西部和东部灰袋鼠(Macropus fuliginosus 和 M.giganteus,Marsupialia: Macropodidae)Cloacina(线虫纲:Strongyloidea)物种的寄主和地理相关遗传变异。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-15 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001458
Shane Gerald Middleton, Anson Koehler, Ian Beveridge

Specimens of Cloacina artemis, C. expansa, C. hera, C. hermes, C. hestia, C. magnipapillata, C. obtusa and C. selene, which occur in both of the closely related species of grey kangaroos, Macropus fuliginosus and M. giganteus, were found to differ genetically based on sequence data derived from the internal transcribed spacers (ITS-1, ITS-2) of ribosomal DNA. The extent of differences varied from a single base pair in C. expansa, to 32 in C. hestia. In the case of C. hera, C. hestia and C. magnipapillata, separate genotypes were found in M. fuliginosus and M. giganteus. With C. artemis, C. expansa, C. obtusa and C. selene, nematode genotypes did not correspond with host distributions. In C. hermes, two genotypes were detected but they were not related phylogenetically. The data provide evidence suggestive of genetic differentiation in most of the nematode species potentially associated with host speciation, but with differing degrees of genetic differentiation and different associations with the two host species possibly related to changes in the geographical distribution of the hosts over time.

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引用次数: 0
Nosemosis negatively affects honeybee survival: experimental and meta-analytic evidence. 鼻疽对蜜蜂存活率的负面影响:实验和元分析证据。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-15 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001446
Monika Ostap-Chec, Jessica Cait, R Wilder Scott, Aneta Arct, Dawid Moroń, Marcin Rapacz, Krzysztof Miler

Nosemosis, caused by microsporidian parasites of the genus Nosema, is considered a significant health concern for insect pollinators, including the economically important honeybee (Apis mellifera). Despite its acknowledged importance, the impact of this disease on honeybee survivorship remains unclear. Here, a standard laboratory cage trial was used to compare mortality rates between healthy and Nosema-infected honeybees. Additionally, a systematic review and meta-analysis of existing literature were conducted to explore how nosemosis contributes to increased mortality in honeybees tested under standard conditions. The review and meta-analysis included 50 studies that reported relevant experiments involving healthy and Nosema-infected individuals. Studies lacking survivorship curves or information on potential moderators, such as spore inoculation dose, age of inoculated bees, or factors that may impact energy expenditure, were excluded. Both the experimental results and meta-analysis revealed a consistent, robust effect of infection, indicating a threefold increase in mortality among the infected group of honeybee workers (hazard ratio for infected individuals = 3.16 [1.97–5.07] and 2.99 [2.36–3.79] in the experiment and meta-analysis, respectively). However, the meta-analysis also indicated high heterogeneity in the effect magnitude, which was not explained by our moderators. Furthermore, there was a serious risk of bias within studies and potential publication bias across studies. The findings underscore knowledge gaps in the literature. It is stressed that laboratory cage trials should be viewed as an initial step in evaluating the impact of Nosema on mortality and that complementary field and apiary studies are essential for identifying effective treatments to preserve honeybee populations.

微孢子虫病是由微孢子虫属寄生虫引起的,被认为是昆虫传粉媒介的重大健康问题,包括具有重要经济意义的蜜蜂。尽管它的重要性得到公认,但这种疾病对蜜蜂生存的影响仍不清楚。在这里,一个标准的实验室笼试验被用来比较健康和感染微虫的蜜蜂的死亡率。此外,对现有文献进行了系统回顾和荟萃分析,以探讨在标准条件下,鼻塞病如何导致蜜蜂死亡率增加。该综述和荟萃分析包括50项研究,这些研究报告了涉及健康和感染诺塞马的个体的相关实验。排除了缺乏生存曲线或潜在调节因子信息的研究,如孢子接种剂量、接种蜜蜂的年龄或可能影响能量消耗的因素。实验结果和荟萃分析都显示了一致的、强大的感染效应,表明感染组的蜜蜂工蜂死亡率增加了三倍(实验和荟萃分析中感染个体的风险比分别为3.16[1.97-5.07]和2.99[2.36-3.79])。然而,荟萃分析也表明,影响程度的异质性很高,我们的调节因子无法解释这一点。此外,研究内部存在严重的偏倚风险,研究之间存在潜在的发表偏倚。这些发现强调了文献中的知识缺口。需要强调的是,实验室笼试验应被视为评估小虫病对死亡率影响的第一步,补充性的现场和养蜂场研究对于确定保护蜜蜂种群的有效治疗方法至关重要。
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引用次数: 0
Mitogenomics of the zoonotic parasite Echinostoma miyagawai and insights into the evolution of tandem repeat regions within the mitochondrial non-coding control region. 人畜共患病寄生虫 Echinostoma miyagawai 的有丝分裂基因组学以及线粒体非编码控制区串联重复区进化的启示。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-14 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001422
Linh Thi Khanh Pham, Dong Van Quyen, Weerachai Saijuntha, Huong Thi Thanh Doan, Thanh Hoa Le, Scott P Lawton
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引用次数: 0
Suitability of invasive gobies as paratenic hosts for acanthocephalans of the genus Pomphorhynchus sp. 外来虾虎鱼作为庞氏棘尾鱼属副宿主的适宜性
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001197
Milen Nachev, Michael Hohenadler, Nicklas Bröckers, Daniel Grabner, Bernd Sures

Ponto-Caspian gobies became highly abundant in many regions outside their native distribution range (e.g. in the Rhine River system). In the newly invaded habitats, the parasite communities of the invasive gobies are characterized by a lower species richness compared to their native range. Interestingly, acanthocephalans of the genus Pomphorhynchus are highly abundant, although they do not become mature and mostly remain encapsulated in the abdominal cavity as preadults. Thus, gobiids could either represent a dead-end host for Pomphorhynchus sp. declining its population (dilution effect) or act as a paratenic host that could increase the infection pressure if the infected gobies are preyed upon by appropriate definitive hosts (spill back). To determine which of the 2 scenarios the gobiids contribute to, we conducted 2 infection experiments using smaller and larger individuals of the definitive host chub (Squalius cephalus), infected with preadults of Pomphorhynchus sp. collected from the abdominal cavity of Neogobius melanostomus. The results showed that preadults were able to complete their development and mature in the definitive host with mean recovery rates of 17.9% in smaller and 27.0% in larger chubs. Successful infections were observed in 62.0% and 80.0% of the smaller and larger chubs, respectively. Our study demonstrated that gobies can theoretically serve as a paratenic host for acanthocephalans of the genus Pomphorhynchus, and that infection might spill back into the local fish community if infected gobies are preyed upon by suitable definitive hosts of Pomphorhynchus sp. such as large barbel or chub.

庞托-里海虾虎鱼在其原生分布区以外的许多地区(如莱茵河水系)变得非常丰富。在新入侵的栖息地,与原生地相比,入侵虾虎鱼的寄生虫群落物种丰富度较低。有趣的是,棘头鰕虎鱼属(Pomphorhynchus)的寄生虫种类非常丰富,尽管它们还没有发育成熟,大部分仍被包裹在成鱼前的腹腔中。因此,虾虎鱼可能是 Pomphorhynchus sp.的死胡同宿主,使其数量减少(稀释效应),也可能是副宿主,如果受感染的虾虎鱼被适当的最终宿主捕食,则会增加感染压力(回溢效应)。为了确定虾虎鱼在这两种情况中的作用,我们使用从黑鳞鰕虎鱼腹腔中收集到的Pomphorhynchus sp.前成体感染确定性宿主鲢(Squalius cephalus)的较小和较大个体,进行了两次感染实验。结果表明,前成虫能够在最终宿主体内完成发育和成熟,小型鲦鱼和大型鲦鱼的平均恢复率分别为 17.9%和 27.0%。小鲦和大鲦的成功感染率分别为 62.0% 和 80.0%。我们的研究表明,理论上虾虎鱼可以作为庞氏棘尾鱼属的副宿主,如果受感染的虾虎鱼被合适的庞氏棘尾鱼属最终宿主(如大鲃或鲢)捕食,感染可能会蔓延到当地鱼类群落。
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引用次数: 0
The burden and distribution of cystic echinococcosis in Bhutan: a retrospective study. 不丹囊性棘球蚴病的负担和分布:一项回顾性研究。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-08 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001069
Chador Tenzin, Tashi Dendup, P R Torgerson, Peter Deplazes, Sonam Zangmo, Chador Wangmo, Tsheten Tsheten, Tandin Zangpo

Cystic echinococcosis (CE), caused by Echinococcus granulosus s.l. is a neglected zoonosis posing a significant public health challenge. Little is known about human CE in Bhutan. This study was conducted to gain an understanding of the burden, distribution, and potential risk factors of CE in Bhutan. From January 2015 to December 2019 data from Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital (JDWNRH) and 6 other district-level hospitals were reviewed. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. DALYs and Poisson regression models were used to estimate the burden and explore the relationship between cases and possible risk factors. A total of 159 cases were recorded. Most cases (145) were admitted to the surgical ward and 14 cases were referred to India. The average annual incidence was 4.4 cases per 100 000 population. The burden of disease was estimated to be approximately 39 DALYs per year for treatment-seeking cases, or possibly 80 DALYs per year including non-treatment seeking cases. This translates to approximately to 5.2 DALYs and 10.2 per 100 000 per year respectively. The commonest sites of infection were the liver (78%) and lungs (13%). Most cases were treated with surgery (>82%), and more than 47% were admitted to the hospital for >4 days. Policy interventions targeting community engagement, awareness, education, high risk occupational groups, females, and those living in the endemic districts of the central and western regions may yield larger gains. More studies and the institution of a surveillance system can help better guide policy interventions.

由粒细胞棘球蚴引起的囊性棘球蚴病(CE)是一种被忽视的人畜共患疾病,对公共卫生构成重大挑战。人们对不丹的人类包虫病知之甚少。本研究旨在了解不丹 CE 的负担、分布和潜在风险因素。研究回顾了2015年1月至2019年12月吉格梅-多吉-旺楚克国家转诊医院(Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital,JDWNRH)和其他6家县级医院的数据。描述性统计用于总结数据。使用残疾调整生命年(DALYs)和泊松回归模型估算负担,并探讨病例与可能的风险因素之间的关系。共记录了 159 个病例。大多数病例(145 例)在外科病房住院,14 例被转诊到印度。年平均发病率为每 10 万人 4.4 例。据估计,寻求治疗的病例每年造成的疾病负担约为 39 DALYs,包括不寻求治疗的病例在内,每年可能造成 80 DALYs 的疾病负担。这分别相当于每 10 万人每年约 5.2 DALYs 和 10.2 DALYs。最常见的感染部位是肝脏(78%)和肺部(13%)。大多数病例都接受了手术治疗(超过 82%),超过 47% 的病例住院时间超过 4 天。针对社区参与、宣传、教育、高风险职业群体、女性以及居住在中西部流行区的人群的政策干预措施可能会取得更大的成效。更多的研究和监测系统的建立有助于更好地指导政策干预。
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引用次数: 0
Drug repurposing for hard-to-treat human alveolar echinococcosis: pyronaridine and beyond. 对难以治疗的人类肺泡棘球蚴病进行药物再利用:吡咯烷及其他。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-11-07 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001124
Weisi Wang, Jun Li, Wenjing Qi, Ying Chen, Mengxiao Tian, Chuanchuan Wu, Yao Zhang, Yingfang Yu, Shuai Han, Xiumin Han, Liping Duan, Wenbao Zhang

Human alveolar echinococcosis is a hard-to-treat and largely untreated parasitic disease with high associated health care costs. The current antiparasitic treatment for alveolar echinococcosis relies exclusively on albendazole, which does not act parasiticidally and can induce severe adverse effects. Alternative, and most importantly, improved treatment options are urgently required. A drug repurposing strategy identified the approved antimalarial pyronaridine as a promising candidate against Echinococcus multilocularis infections. Following a 30-day oral regimen (80 mg kg−1 day−1), pyronaridine achieved an excellent therapeutic outcome in a clinically relevant hepatic alveolar echinococcosis murine model, showing a significant reduction in both metacestode size (72.0%) and counts (85.2%) compared to unmedicated infected mice, which revealed significantly more potent anti-echinococcal potency than albendazole treatment at an equal dose (metacestode size: 42.3%; counts: 4.1%). The strong parasiticidal activity of pyronaridine was further confirmed by the destructive damage to metacestode tissues observed morphologically. In addition, a screening campaign combined with computational similarity searching against an approved drug library led to the identification of pirenzepine, a gastric acid-inhibiting drug, exhibiting potent parasiticidal activity against protoscoleces and in vitro cultured small cysts, which warranted further in vivo investigation as a promising anti-echinococcal lead compound. Pyronaridine has a known drug profile and a long track record of safety, and its repurposing could translate rapidly to clinical use for human patients with alveolar echinococcosis as an alternative or salvage treatment.

人类肺泡棘球蚴病是一种难以治疗的寄生虫病,且大多未经治疗,相关医疗费用高昂。目前,肺泡棘球蚴病的抗寄生虫治疗完全依赖于阿苯达唑,但阿苯达唑对寄生虫不起作用,而且会引起严重的不良反应。因此,迫切需要替代性的、最重要的、更好的治疗方案。一项药物再利用战略发现,已获批准的抗疟药物吡咯那啶是治疗多角棘球蚴感染的理想候选药物。经过 30 天的口服治疗(80 毫克/千克-1 天-1),吡咯那啶在与临床相关的肝泡棘球蚴病小鼠模型中取得了极佳的治疗效果,与未用药的感染小鼠相比,其元灶大小(72.0%)和计数(85.2%)均显著减少,这表明吡咯那啶的抗棘球蚴效力明显高于同等剂量的阿苯达唑治疗(元灶大小:42.3%;计数:4.1%)。从形态学角度观察到的对 metacestode 组织的破坏性损害进一步证实了吡萘啶的强大杀寄生虫活性。此外,通过对已获批准的药物库进行计算相似性搜索和筛选,发现了一种胃酸抑制药物哌仑西平,它对原孢子虫和体外培养的小囊虫具有很强的杀寄生虫活性,值得作为一种有前途的抗恙虫病先导化合物进行进一步的体内研究。Pyronaridine具有已知的药物特征和长期的安全记录,将其重新用于临床可迅速转化为肺泡棘球蚴病患者的替代或挽救治疗方法。
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引用次数: 0
Neglected yet pervasive: echinococcosis awareness and prevention capacity in Kyrgyzstan. 被忽视却普遍存在:吉尔吉斯斯坦对棘球蚴病的认识和预防能力。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001343
Dmitry Vishniakov, Mairamkul Turdumambetova, Nazgul Matkerimova, Kenesh Dzhusupov, Zildiz Sultanbaeva, Eldar Rafibekov

The study aimed to assess the heterogeneity in the distribution of disease awareness, attitudes, and practices related to cystic echinococcosis (CE) in different subgroups and inform health authorities regionally and globally for future evidence-based tailored prevention practices in the region. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 242 participants from Kyrgyz Republic (KR), Issyk-Kul oblast, and utilized survey data to analyse demographics, household information, echinococcosis-related practices, and knowledge. Participants in high-risk environments (HRE) and engaging in high-risk behaviours (HRB) linked to CE contracting were identified. Out of 242 participants, 39% lived in HRE, with 22% engaging in HRB of contracting CE. 13% lived in HRE and engaged in HRB. Only 6% followed all preventive measures, while 56% followed some. 97.5% of participants had heard about CE, but only 6% identified all transmission routes, and 63.4% were unaware of dog contact as a route. Education reduced the odds of being in the highest risk group (HRE&HRB) (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.23–0.80). The study's findings are alarming, emphasizing factors contributing to regional endemicity. We anticipated a similar pattern in the neighbouring countries, given the shared nomadic customs and historical parallels. Examination of the heterogeneity of disease awareness and practices allows tailored prevention strategies. Urgent prevention programmes focusing on echinococcosis awareness in the KR are crucial to addressing challenges posed by nomadic habits.

该研究旨在评估不同亚组中与囊性包虫病(CE)相关的疾病意识、态度和实践分布的异质性,并为区域和全球卫生当局提供信息,以便将来在该地区开展基于证据的量身定制的预防实践。对来自吉尔吉斯斯坦伊塞克-库尔州的242名参与者进行了横断面研究,并利用调查数据分析人口统计学、家庭信息、棘球蚴病相关实践和知识。确定了高风险环境(HRE)和从事与CE合同相关的高风险行为(HRB)的参与者。在242名参与者中,39%的人生活在HRE, 22%的人从事HRB或感染CE。13%居住在HRE并从事HRB。只有6%的人采取了所有预防措施,而56%的人采取了一些措施。97.5%的参与者听说过CE,但只有6%的参与者确定了所有传播途径,63.4%的参与者不知道狗接触是一种途径。受教育程度降低了成为高危人群(HRE&HRB)的几率(OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.23-0.80)。这项研究的结果令人担忧,它强调了导致地区地方性的因素。考虑到共同的游牧习俗和历史上的相似之处,我们预计邻国也会出现类似的模式。对疾病认识和实践的异质性进行检查,可以制定有针对性的预防战略。紧急预防规划的重点是提高克罗地亚对棘球蚴病的认识,这对于解决游牧习惯带来的挑战至关重要。
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引用次数: 0
Genetic diversity of Dioctophyme renale in Southern South America. 南美洲南部 Dioctophyme renale 的遗传多样性。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024001379
Lucas F Arce, Florencia Facelli Fernández, Nahili Giorello, Marcos Butti, Lucas L Maldonado, Juan P Arrabal, María B Natalini, Martín Kowalewski, Daniela Pedrassani, Carol Silveira Mascarenhas, Josaine C da Silva Rappeti, Florencia Zilli, Pablo M Beldomenico, Verónica Lia, Gisela R Franchini, Laura Kamenetzky
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引用次数: 0
Presence of Echinococcus eggs in the environment and food: a review of current data and future prospects. 环境和食物中的棘球蚴虫卵:当前数据回顾与未来展望。
IF 2.1 3区 医学 Q2 PARASITOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-21 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182024000945
Roxanne Barosi, Gérald Umhang

Cystic and alveolar echinococcosis are considered the second and third most significant foodborne parasitic diseases worldwide. The microscopic eggs excreted in the feces of the definitive host are the only source of contamination for intermediate and dead-end hosts, including humans. However, estimating the respective contribution of the environment, fomites, animals or food in the transmission of Echinococcus eggs is still challenging. Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis seem to have a similar survival capacity regarding temperature under laboratory conditions. In addition, field experiments have reported that the eggs can survive several weeks to years outdoors, with confirmation of the relative susceptibility of Echinococcus eggs to desiccation. Bad weather (such as rain and wind), invertebrates and birds help scatter Echinococcus eggs in the environment and may thus impact human exposure. Contamination of food and the environment by taeniid eggs has been the subject of renewed interest in the past decade. Various matrices from endemic regions have been found to be contaminated by Echinococcus eggs. These include water, soil, vegetables and berries, with heterogeneous rates highlighting the need to acquire more robust data so as to obtain an accurate assessment of the risk of human infection. In this context, it is essential to use efficient methods of detection and to develop methods for evaluating the viability of eggs in the environment and food.

囊性和肺泡棘球蚴病被认为是全球第二大和第三大食源性寄生虫病。最终宿主粪便中排出的微小虫卵是包括人类在内的中间宿主和死亡宿主的唯一污染源。然而,估算环境、寄生虫、动物或食物在棘球蚴虫卵传播中各自的作用仍具有挑战性。在实验室条件下,粒细胞棘球蚴和多角体棘球蚴在温度方面似乎具有相似的生存能力。此外,现场实验报告称,虫卵可在室外存活数周至数年,这证实了棘球蚴虫卵对干燥的相对敏感性。恶劣天气(如风雨)、无脊椎动物和鸟类会使棘球蚴卵散落在环境中,从而影响人类的接触。过去十年来,棘球蚴虫卵对食物和环境的污染再次引起人们的关注。已发现流行地区的各种基质受到了棘球蚴虫卵的污染。这些基质包括水、土壤、蔬菜和浆果,其污染率各不相同,这突出表明有必要获取更可靠的数据,以便准确评估人类感染的风险。在这种情况下,必须使用有效的检测方法,并开发评估环境和食物中虫卵存活率的方法。
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引用次数: 0
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Parasitology
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