Rural areas are the product of the development of productivity to a certain stage. Generally, rural areas are geographical areas located outside of cities and towns. The Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the term “rural” as “...not including all population, housing, and territory in urban areas. Anything that is not in a city is regarded as a rural area” (HRSA, 2021). From the perspective of production methods, rural areas refer to “a place where people mainly engaged in agricultural production live together” (The Dictionary Editing Office of the Institute of Languages, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2005). When productivity has not yet reached a high level of development, there are still essential differences between urban and rural areas. Affected by economic transformation and geographical location, rural economic growth has been restricted. According to United Nations statistics, in 2018, the rural population accounted for more than half of the global population, and the rural poor accounted for 79% of the worldwide poverty population; the poverty rate in rural areas was more than three times that of urban areas. Of the 2 billion people in the world who do not have basic health services, 70% live in rural areas; the ratio of energy access in rural areas is about 75%, while that in urban areas is 96% (United Nations General Assembly, 2018).
{"title":"How Should Education in Rural Areas be Reformed?","authors":"A. Cheung","doi":"10.15354/sief.21.co015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.21.co015","url":null,"abstract":"Rural areas are the product of the development of productivity to a certain stage. Generally, rural areas are geographical areas located outside of cities and towns. The Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the term “rural” as “...not including all population, housing, and territory in urban areas. Anything that is not in a city is regarded as a rural area” (HRSA, 2021). From the perspective of production methods, rural areas refer to “a place where people mainly engaged in agricultural production live together” (The Dictionary Editing Office of the Institute of Languages, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2005). When productivity has not yet reached a high level of development, there are still essential differences between urban and rural areas. Affected by economic transformation and geographical location, rural economic growth has been restricted. According to United Nations statistics, in 2018, the rural population accounted for more than half of the global population, and the rural poor accounted for 79% of the worldwide poverty population; the poverty rate in rural areas was more than three times that of urban areas. Of the 2 billion people in the world who do not have basic health services, 70% live in rural areas; the ratio of energy access in rural areas is about 75%, while that in urban areas is 96% (United Nations General Assembly, 2018).","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"168 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122940937","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The article addresses the challenges facing higher education, related to the demographic problems and the quality of process management. The free movement and the single education area are changing attitudes, especially those of young people and their choice where to receive education. The demographic crisis, migration and the lower quality of previous levels of education are further exacerbating the situation in higher education. The article argues that a change in the educational management is necessary in order to find solutions to deficits and to build a model of „engaged universities‟ where the quality of education is maintained at a level consistent with socio-economic processes.
{"title":"The contemporary strategic challenges facing higher education","authors":"V. Terziev, M. Lyubcheva, M. Georgiev","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3919111","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3919111","url":null,"abstract":"The article addresses the challenges facing higher education, related to the demographic problems and the quality of process management. The free movement and the single education area are changing attitudes, especially those of young people and their choice where to receive education. The demographic crisis, migration and the lower quality of previous levels of education are further exacerbating the situation in higher education. The article argues that a change in the educational management is necessary in order to find solutions to deficits and to build a model of „engaged universities‟ where the quality of education is maintained at a level consistent with socio-economic processes.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115150663","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Marcel Peruffo, Pedro Cavalcanti Ferreira, André Cordeiro Valério
We study the macroeconomic and social effects of Universal Basic Income (UBI) programs in a developing economy, comparing them with policies that condition cash transfers on household characteristics (CCT). We construct a dynastic heterogeneous-agent model with human capital investment and choice of labor effort and calibrate it to Brazilian data. In the short run, UBI alleviates poverty and increases the welfare of the poor. Over time, however, income falls and poverty and inequality increase since investments in physical and human capital decrease along with labor supply. In most dimensions, CCT programs outperform UBI policies, largely due to school enrollment requirements.
{"title":"Universal Basic Income in Developing Countries: Pitfalls and Alternatives","authors":"Marcel Peruffo, Pedro Cavalcanti Ferreira, André Cordeiro Valério","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3865087","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3865087","url":null,"abstract":"We study the macroeconomic and social effects of Universal Basic Income (UBI) programs in a developing economy, comparing them with policies that condition cash transfers on household characteristics (CCT). We construct a dynastic heterogeneous-agent model with human capital investment and choice of labor effort and calibrate it to Brazilian data. In the short run, UBI alleviates poverty and increases the welfare of the poor. Over time, however, income falls and poverty and inequality increase since investments in physical and human capital decrease along with labor supply. In most dimensions, CCT programs outperform UBI policies, largely due to school enrollment requirements.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"47 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125405850","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
There is broad but ambiguous evidence on ethnic discrimination. In particular, there is a disparity between lab and field. In order to assess a possible influence of monitoring (e.g. in an experimental setup) on discrimination we implement a recruitment setup on an online crowdsourcing marketplace with US residents. Our three treatments vary the context of a recruitment situation. Participants are either (1) simply asked to perform a pre-selection in a recruitment process, or (2) additionally made aware they are participating in an experiment, or (3) additionally made aware their decisions will be evaluated ex post. We use a causal forest to uncover heterogeneity in ethnic discrimination. On average, participants favor résumés with names typically associated with Black Americans by a small amount. A small minority of participants strongly favor résumés with names typically associated with White Americans in the control treatment, but this effect disappears if participants are told that they are participating in an experiment or that their decisions are being monitored. Our study thus demonstrates that socially acceptable discrimination pertains while undesirable discrimination is mitigated by monitoring. This extends to experimental setups, explaining part of the disparity between lab and field.
{"title":"Monitoring Decreases Discrimination","authors":"E. Baker, Veronika Grimm","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3858441","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3858441","url":null,"abstract":"There is broad but ambiguous evidence on ethnic discrimination. In particular, there is a disparity between lab and field. In order to assess a possible influence of monitoring (e.g. in an experimental setup) on discrimination we implement a recruitment setup on an online crowdsourcing marketplace with US residents. Our three treatments vary the context of a recruitment situation. Participants are either (1) simply asked to perform a pre-selection in a recruitment process, or (2) additionally made aware they are participating in an experiment, or (3) additionally made aware their decisions will be evaluated ex post. We use a causal forest to uncover heterogeneity in ethnic discrimination. On average, participants favor résumés with names typically associated with Black Americans by a small amount. A small minority of participants strongly favor résumés with names typically associated with White Americans in the control treatment, but this effect disappears if participants are told that they are participating in an experiment or that their decisions are being monitored. Our study thus demonstrates that socially acceptable discrimination pertains while undesirable discrimination is mitigated by monitoring. This extends to experimental setups, explaining part of the disparity between lab and field.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116904637","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Using detailed administrative data that allow us to hold gender, education, productivity, timeliness, and work quality constant, we document that minority patent examiners at the U.S. patent office face substantial glass ceilings and pay gaps. The promotion gap relative to White examiners averages 24.3% for Blacks, 10.5% for Hispanics, and 4.5% for Asians, with Black examiners 41.7% less likely than Whites to be promoted to the highest rank. Consistent with statistical discrimination, we find that the promotion gap for senior Black examiners halves around Obama’s 2008 election win and that greater exposure to successful minority examiners affects managers’ promotion decisions positively. We show that promotion gaps have adverse effects on the services the patent office provides to inventors and society.
{"title":"Race, Glass Ceilings, and Lower Pay for Equal Work","authors":"D. Hegde, Alexander Ljungqvist, Manav Raj","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3811410","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3811410","url":null,"abstract":"Using detailed administrative data that allow us to hold gender, education, productivity, timeliness, and work quality constant, we document that minority patent examiners at the U.S. patent office face substantial glass ceilings and pay gaps. The promotion gap relative to White examiners averages 24.3% for Blacks, 10.5% for Hispanics, and 4.5% for Asians, with Black examiners 41.7% less likely than Whites to be promoted to the highest rank. Consistent with statistical discrimination, we find that the promotion gap for senior Black examiners halves around Obama’s 2008 election win and that greater exposure to successful minority examiners affects managers’ promotion decisions positively. We show that promotion gaps have adverse effects on the services the patent office provides to inventors and society.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"18 4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123451267","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Two family-specific lotteries take place during conception— a social lottery that determines who our parents are and which environment we grow up in, and a genetic lottery that determines which part of their genomes our parents pass on to us. The outcomes of these lotteries create inequalities of opportunity that can translate into disparities in health and socioeconomic status. Here, we estimate a lower bound for the relevance of these two lotteries for differences in education, income and body mass index in a sample of 38,698 siblings in the UK who were born between 1937 and 1970. Our estimates are based on models that combine family-specific effects with gene-by-environment interactions. We find that the random differences between siblings in their genetic endowments clearly contribute towards inequalities in the outcomes we study. Our rough proxy of the environment people grew up in, which we derived from their place of birth, are also predictive of the studied outcomes, but not beyond the relevance of family environment. Our estimates suggest that at least 13 to 17 percent of the inequalities in education, wages and BMI in the UK are due to inequalities in opportunity that arise from the outcomes of the social and the genetic lottery.
{"title":"Disparities in Socio-Economic Status and BMI in the UK Are Partly Due to Genetic and Environmental Luck","authors":"C. Burik, H. Kweon, P. Koellinger","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3839489","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3839489","url":null,"abstract":"Two family-specific lotteries take place during conception— a social lottery that determines who our parents are and which environment we grow up in, and a genetic lottery that determines which part of their genomes our parents pass on to us. The outcomes of these lotteries create inequalities of opportunity that can translate into disparities in health and socioeconomic status. Here, we estimate a lower bound for the relevance of these two lotteries for differences in education, income and body mass index in a sample of 38,698 siblings in the UK who were born between 1937 and 1970. Our estimates are based on models that combine family-specific effects with gene-by-environment interactions. We find that the random differences between siblings in their genetic endowments clearly contribute towards inequalities in the outcomes we study. Our rough proxy of the environment people grew up in, which we derived from their place of birth, are also predictive of the studied outcomes, but not beyond the relevance of family environment. Our estimates suggest that at least 13 to 17 percent of the inequalities in education, wages and BMI in the UK are due to inequalities in opportunity that arise from the outcomes of the social and the genetic lottery.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"59 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129498458","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper examines the relationship between wealth holdings and patterns of various household characteristics, including education, occupation, wealth portfolio structures and inheritance. The focus is on comparing the wealth levels of Black and White Americans, and relating differences in these levels to socio-economic characteristics. We find that a combination of inheritance, education and occupation is significantly related to differences in wealth levels. However, household characteristics such as education, homeownership or business ownership are not by themselves pathways to reducing wealth gaps, let alone eliminating them. Financial literacy also does not appear to play a role in explaining the wealth gap.
{"title":"Understanding the Black-White Wealth Gap in the United States","authors":"Nirvikar Singh","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3800592","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3800592","url":null,"abstract":"This paper examines the relationship between wealth holdings and patterns of various household characteristics, including education, occupation, wealth portfolio structures and inheritance. The focus is on comparing the wealth levels of Black and White Americans, and relating differences in these levels to socio-economic characteristics. We find that a combination of inheritance, education and occupation is significantly related to differences in wealth levels. However, household characteristics such as education, homeownership or business ownership are not by themselves pathways to reducing wealth gaps, let alone eliminating them. Financial literacy also does not appear to play a role in explaining the wealth gap.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129101896","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Despite targeting technical skills, vocational school graduates earn less than college graduates. This paper presents evidence that conformity selection and perceived skill gaps explain differences in hireability. Microdata from the United States reveal a perceived soft skill deficit for alternatively credentialed noncollege graduate (ACNG) labor. Conformity is also important, but the direction of effect is heterogenous by employer type. Conformity and perceived skill gaps explain about one-third of the hireability variance. Perceived soft skill gaps explain more hireability variance than widely recognized factors like the industry of occupation. Opposite conventional explanation, results suggest that conformity reduces hireability on average. Respondents tend to perceive ACNG candidates as an even mix of high and low performers. Evidence favors employer risk aversion toward labor productivity as a preferred explanation of low ACNG demand. The conclusion incorporates discussion of public misperception on vocational school costs and suggests activities to reduce unconscious bias
{"title":"Conformity and Soft Skills as Determinants of Alternatively Credentialed Non-College Graduate Hireability","authors":"J. Vandivier","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3829269","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3829269","url":null,"abstract":"Despite targeting technical skills, vocational school graduates earn less than college graduates. This paper presents evidence that conformity selection and perceived skill gaps explain differences in hireability. Microdata from the United States reveal a perceived soft skill deficit for alternatively credentialed noncollege graduate (ACNG) labor. Conformity is also important, but the direction of effect is heterogenous by employer type. Conformity and perceived skill gaps explain about one-third of the hireability variance. Perceived soft skill gaps explain more hireability variance than widely recognized factors like the industry of occupation. Opposite conventional explanation, results suggest that conformity reduces hireability on average. Respondents tend to perceive ACNG candidates as an even mix of high and low performers. Evidence favors employer risk aversion toward labor productivity as a preferred explanation of low ACNG demand. The conclusion incorporates discussion of public misperception on vocational school costs and suggests activities to reduce unconscious bias","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115147943","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The U.S. is undergoing a long-term decline in entrepreneurship. We show that this slowdown in entrepreneurship has been more pronounced for skilled individuals – those with at least a college degree. We propose that this skill-biased decline is a response to the rise in worker skill premium that occurred over the same period. In support of this, we document that earnings for workers grew faster than entrepreneurs, particularly for skilled individuals, discouraging the pursuit of entrepreneurship relative to wage employment. To quantify the impact of the skill premium on entrepreneurship, we develop a model of occupational choice that features worker heterogeneity. In the model, an increase in the skill premium – driven by skill-biased technological change – contributes little in lowering entrepreneurship. Instead, around 70% of the observed decline in entrepreneurship is driven by skill-neutral technological change and a rising share of college graduates. The rising skill premium interacts with these forces and fully explains the skill-biased nature of the decline. Further, by shifting the composition of entrepreneurs towards relatively low productivity entrepreneurs, an increase in the skill premium lowers average entrepreneurial productivity. This suggests an integral role for the changing income structure of workers in driving the broader decline in business dynamism in the U.S.
{"title":"Skill-Biased Entrepreneurial Decline","authors":"Helu Jiang, Faisal Sohail","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3480303","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3480303","url":null,"abstract":"The U.S. is undergoing a long-term decline in entrepreneurship. We show that this slowdown<br>in entrepreneurship has been more pronounced for skilled individuals – those with at least<br>a college degree. We propose that this skill-biased decline is a response to the rise in worker skill<br>premium that occurred over the same period. In support of this, we document that earnings<br>for workers grew faster than entrepreneurs, particularly for skilled individuals, discouraging<br>the pursuit of entrepreneurship relative to wage employment. To quantify the impact of the<br>skill premium on entrepreneurship, we develop a model of occupational choice that features<br>worker heterogeneity. In the model, an increase in the skill premium – driven by skill-biased<br>technological change – contributes little in lowering entrepreneurship. Instead, around 70%<br>of the observed decline in entrepreneurship is driven by skill-neutral technological change and<br>a rising share of college graduates. The rising skill premium interacts with these forces and<br>fully explains the skill-biased nature of the decline. Further, by shifting the composition of<br>entrepreneurs towards relatively low productivity entrepreneurs, an increase in the skill premium<br>lowers average entrepreneurial productivity. This suggests an integral role for the changing<br>income structure of workers in driving the broader decline in business dynamism in the U.S.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124945601","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study investigates how household wealth affects the human capital of startups, based on U.S. Census individual-level employment data, deed records, and geographic information system (GIS) data. Using floods as a wealth shock, a regression discontinuity analysis shows inundated residents are 7% less likely to work in startups relative to their neighbors outside the flood boundary, within a 0.1-mile-wide band. The effect is more pronounced for homeowners, consistent with the wealth effect. The career distortion leads to a significant long-run income loss, highlighting the importance of self-insurance for human capital allocation.
{"title":"Household Wealth and Entrepreneurial Career Choices: Evidence from Climate Disasters","authors":"Xiao Cen","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.3803436","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3803436","url":null,"abstract":"This study investigates how household wealth affects the human capital of startups, based on U.S. Census individual-level employment data, deed records, and geographic information system (GIS) data. Using floods as a wealth shock, a regression discontinuity analysis shows inundated residents are 7% less likely to work in startups relative to their neighbors outside the flood boundary, within a 0.1-mile-wide band. The effect is more pronounced for homeowners, consistent with the wealth effect. The career distortion leads to a significant long-run income loss, highlighting the importance of self-insurance for human capital allocation.","PeriodicalId":210669,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Human Capital eJournal","volume":"96 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127666986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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