This paper analyzes the development of James I’s theory of divine right in England and how its application elevated the sovereignty of the monarch to the extent of absolutism in the early seventeenth century. Since divine right ultimately conflicted with the ancient laws and customs of the English government, James’s theory provoked newfound interpretations of the political and judicial authority of the ruler. From a plethora of political treatises, religious sermons, and parliamentary records, these interpretations ultimately affected how governmental institutions, such as Parliament and the courts, interacted with the monarchy. Parliamentarians became more submissive to the king's will, the importance of constitutional law was diminished, and political theories grew more in favor of divine right. As such, by the end of James’s reign, divine right was no longer a theory but rather a political reality, a development which enabled the king to rule with absolute power, all at the expense of parliamentary autonomy, constitutional supremacy, and individual liberty. Therefore, discourse over the true nature of monarchal government not only became more prevalent, but divine right itself became significantly entrenched within the English monarchy. This development altered the English political landscape entirely, inevitably leading the kingdom to civil war in the 1640s and a fervent resurgence of divine right with the restoration of Charles II in 1660. Thus, this paper reveals that divine right during the reign of James I was paramount towards the transformation of the monarchy in early modern England, for it created a myriad of unique and complex understandings of rulership that would ultimately lead to the expansion of absolutism, civil conflict, and political unrest for the remainder of the century.
{"title":"The Little God of England: The Divine Right of James I and the English Response","authors":"Nathan Greenhaw","doi":"10.25172/jour.7.2.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/jour.7.2.3","url":null,"abstract":"This paper analyzes the development of James I’s theory of divine right in England and how its application elevated the sovereignty of the monarch to the extent of absolutism in the early seventeenth century. Since divine right ultimately conflicted with the ancient laws and customs of the English government, James’s theory provoked newfound interpretations of the political and judicial authority of the ruler. From a plethora of political treatises, religious sermons, and parliamentary records, these interpretations ultimately affected how governmental institutions, such as Parliament and the courts, interacted with the monarchy. Parliamentarians became more submissive to the king's will, the importance of constitutional law was diminished, and political theories grew more in favor of divine right. As such, by the end of James’s reign, divine right was no longer a theory but rather a political reality, a development which enabled the king to rule with absolute power, all at the expense of parliamentary autonomy, constitutional supremacy, and individual liberty. Therefore, discourse over the true nature of monarchal government not only became more prevalent, but divine right itself became significantly entrenched within the English monarchy. This development altered the English political landscape entirely, inevitably leading the kingdom to civil war in the 1640s and a fervent resurgence of divine right with the restoration of Charles II in 1660. Thus, this paper reveals that divine right during the reign of James I was paramount towards the transformation of the monarchy in early modern England, for it created a myriad of unique and complex understandings of rulership that would ultimately lead to the expansion of absolutism, civil conflict, and political unrest for the remainder of the century.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127375278","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Volume 7, Issue 1 Digital Front Matter","authors":"Hannah Web","doi":"10.25172/jour.7.1.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/jour.7.1.3","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125856084","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study considered the preparation of a new DNA binding Ruthenium polypyridyl complex possessing an infrared active nitrile group. The binding abilities of a novel Ruthenium complex, [Ru(TMP)2DPPZ-10-CN], to various forms of DNA—both canonical and non-canonical—were examined by performing multiple DNA titrations. DNA is of great interest as it is the carrier of genetic information for all living things. Damage to DNA can have drastically detrimental effects, so the study of its structure and replication is of great importance. Two non-canonical structures that are important are the G-quadruplex and i-motif which form at the telomeric and regulatory regions of genes, respectively, and have the ability to block telomerase activity and influence transcription. The complex was synthesized by microwave irradiation and purified using a silica column and an ion exchange with Amberlite 402. Six titrations were, then, performed with salmon sperm dsDNA, guanine monophosphate (GMP), G4T4G4, human telomere G-quadruplex, i-motif C5T3, and i-motif C30. The complex was found to favor non-canonical structures, particularly the G-quadruplex structure, because of its high [bp]/[Ru] concentrations. The higher concentration of base pairs or structures per Ruthenium molecule indicated that the complex had a high binding affinity for that particular DNA structure. These results support the notion that Ruthenium metal complexes can be used for theragnostic purposes and can be used to target the telomeric region of genes where G-quadruplex structures can be found and influence transcription initiation and inhibit telomerase activity.
{"title":"The Use of Ruthenium Complexes as Molecular Probes for Non-Canonical DNA","authors":"Eleni Sullivan","doi":"10.25172/7.1.2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/7.1.2","url":null,"abstract":"This study considered the preparation of a new DNA binding Ruthenium polypyridyl complex possessing an infrared active nitrile group. The binding abilities of a novel Ruthenium complex, [Ru(TMP)2DPPZ-10-CN], to various forms of DNA—both canonical and non-canonical—were examined by performing multiple DNA titrations. DNA is of great interest as it is the carrier of genetic information for all living things. Damage to DNA can have drastically detrimental effects, so the study of its structure and replication is of great importance. Two non-canonical structures that are important are the G-quadruplex and i-motif which form at the telomeric and regulatory regions of genes, respectively, and have the ability to block telomerase activity and influence transcription. The complex was synthesized by microwave irradiation and purified using a silica column and an ion exchange with Amberlite 402. Six titrations were, then, performed with salmon sperm dsDNA, guanine monophosphate (GMP), G4T4G4, human telomere G-quadruplex, i-motif C5T3, and i-motif C30. The complex was found to favor non-canonical structures, particularly the G-quadruplex structure, because of its high [bp]/[Ru] concentrations. The higher concentration of base pairs or structures per Ruthenium molecule indicated that the complex had a high binding affinity for that particular DNA structure. These results support the notion that Ruthenium metal complexes can be used for theragnostic purposes and can be used to target the telomeric region of genes where G-quadruplex structures can be found and influence transcription initiation and inhibit telomerase activity.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"43 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132629382","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study considered the preparation of a new DNA binding Ruthenium polypyridyl complex possessing an infrared active nitrile group. The binding abilities of a novel Ruthenium complex, [Ru(TMP)2DPPZ-10-CN], to various forms of DNA—both canonical and non-canonical—were examined by performing multiple DNA titrations. DNA is of great interest as it is the carrier of genetic information for all living things. Damage to DNA can have drastically detrimental effects, so the study of its structure and replication is of great importance. Two non-canonical structures that are important are the G-quadruplex and i-motif which form at the telomeric and regulatory regions of genes, respectively, and have the ability to block telomerase activity and influence transcription. The complex was synthesized by microwave irradiation and purified using a silica column and an ion exchange with Amberlite 402. Six titrations were, then, performed with salmon sperm dsDNA, guanine monophosphate (GMP), G4T4G4, human telomere G-quadruplex, i-motif C5T3, and i-motif C30. The complex was found to favor non-canonical structures, particularly the G-quadruplex structure, because of its high [bp]/[Ru] concentrations. The higher concentration of base pairs or structures per Ruthenium molecule indicated that the complex had a high binding affinity for that particular DNA structure. These results support the notion that Ruthenium metal complexes can be used for theragnostic purposes and can be used to target the telomeric region of genes where G-quadruplex structures can be found and influence transcription initiation and inhibit telomerase activity.
{"title":"The Use of Ruthenium Complexes as Molecular Probes for Non-Canonical DNA” by Eleni Sullivan","authors":"Eleni Sullivan","doi":"10.25172/jour.7.1.2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/jour.7.1.2","url":null,"abstract":"This study considered the preparation of a new DNA binding Ruthenium polypyridyl complex possessing an infrared active nitrile group. The binding abilities of a novel Ruthenium complex, [Ru(TMP)2DPPZ-10-CN], to various forms of DNA—both canonical and non-canonical—were examined by performing multiple DNA titrations. DNA is of great interest as it is the carrier of genetic information for all living things. Damage to DNA can have drastically detrimental effects, so the study of its structure and replication is of great importance. Two non-canonical structures that are important are the G-quadruplex and i-motif which form at the telomeric and regulatory regions of genes, respectively, and have the ability to block telomerase activity and influence transcription. The complex was synthesized by microwave irradiation and purified using a silica column and an ion exchange with Amberlite 402. Six titrations were, then, performed with salmon sperm dsDNA, guanine monophosphate (GMP), G4T4G4, human telomere G-quadruplex, i-motif C5T3, and i-motif C30. The complex was found to favor non-canonical structures, particularly the G-quadruplex structure, because of its high [bp]/[Ru] concentrations. The higher concentration of base pairs or structures per Ruthenium molecule indicated that the complex had a high binding affinity for that particular DNA structure. These results support the notion that Ruthenium metal complexes can be used for theragnostic purposes and can be used to target the telomeric region of genes where G-quadruplex structures can be found and influence transcription initiation and inhibit telomerase activity.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114312640","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Juncaceae, otherwise known as rushes, are grass-like herbs that grow throughout North America in both arctic and temperate regions. The purpose of this monograph is to describe the 2 genera and 24 species of Juncaceae growing in northcentral New Mexico. Included is an introduction to the Juncaceae Family and the region of interest, reference maps, and a description of the materials and methods used to complete this research. Species description pages provide characteristics of the habit, leaves, flowers, fruit, and medicinal/culinary applications as well as pictures and diagrams. A key to the genera, keys to the species, a glossary, and an appendix with collected specimens are also included to increase ease of identifying plants of the Rush Family.
{"title":"Rushes of Northcentral New Mexico","authors":"Madeline Payne","doi":"10.25172/jour.7.1.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/jour.7.1.1","url":null,"abstract":"Juncaceae, otherwise known as rushes, are grass-like herbs that grow throughout North America in both arctic and temperate regions. The purpose of this monograph is to describe the 2 genera and 24 species of Juncaceae growing in northcentral New Mexico. Included is an introduction to the Juncaceae Family and the region of interest, reference maps, and a description of the materials and methods used to complete this research. Species description pages provide characteristics of the habit, leaves, flowers, fruit, and medicinal/culinary applications as well as pictures and diagrams. A key to the genera, keys to the species, a glossary, and an appendix with collected specimens are also included to increase ease of identifying plants of the Rush Family.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131845867","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) is a developing field of biological imaging that employs the use of photoswitching fluorophores to image sub-cellular biological structures at a higher resolution than was previously possible. These fluorophores are used for protein labeling, so that the sample can be imaged under fluorescence microscopy. This type of microscopy requires the use of many different types of fluorophores, which are fluorescent organic compounds that blink stochastically on and off. Thus, it is critical for developers in the field to have easy access to statistical models of the behaviors of different fluorophores. Here, we take AlexaFluor 647 and analyze it using a fluorescence microscope, taking data on its blinking behaviors and discerning its properties when immersed in a fluorescence-dampening buffer solution. We find that the compound behaves best in buffer solution, and we forge a new methodology for evaluating new fluorophores in a systematic fashion using readily available computer software.
{"title":"Imaging Analysis of Photoswitching Fluorophores Using Single-Imaging Analysis of Photoswitching Fluorophores Using Single-Molecule Microscopy Molecule Microsco","authors":"K. Binkley, Caleb Griffin","doi":"10.25172/JOUR.6.2.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/JOUR.6.2.1","url":null,"abstract":"Single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) is a developing field of biological imaging that employs the use of photoswitching fluorophores to image sub-cellular biological structures at a higher resolution than was previously possible. These fluorophores are used for protein labeling, so that the sample can be imaged under fluorescence microscopy. This type of microscopy requires the use of many different types of fluorophores, which are fluorescent organic compounds that blink stochastically on and off. Thus, it is critical for developers in the field to have easy access to statistical models of the behaviors of different fluorophores. Here, we take AlexaFluor 647 and analyze it using a fluorescence microscope, taking data on its blinking behaviors and discerning its properties when immersed in a fluorescence-dampening buffer solution. We find that the compound behaves best in buffer solution, and we forge a new methodology for evaluating new fluorophores in a systematic fashion using readily available computer software.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"46 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129592095","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper discusses the study and analysis of portraiture of the favorites of King James I: Esmé Stuart, Robert Carr, and George Villiers. Although famous female mistresses (such as Anne Boleyn before her queenship or Madame de Pompadour) often did wield immense political power, there is better historical documentation for the power of male favorites in politics, the military, economics, and other areas of national affairs. Studying visual primary source material allows a new perspective on contemporary thought and propaganda of the time. Certain aspects of character are better communicated through the intricate symbology of the time, and portraiture allows a perfect avenue to bringing those observations to light. The art forms discussed—official depictions as well as engraved prints, which were more easily disseminated to a wider public—had very different audiences and therefore carried different messages. By analyzing these works, we can draw new conclusions about the ways in which the contemporaries of the favorites, regardless of social status, perceived these men. "Reading” visual and written sources through a queer lens will also provide a depth of understanding missed by earlier sources, which have historically lacked that lens.
{"title":"Unto One Man’s Hand: The Power of Portraiture of The Favorites of James I","authors":"Maria Rosario Katsulos","doi":"10.25172/JOUR.6.2.4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/JOUR.6.2.4","url":null,"abstract":"This paper discusses the study and analysis of portraiture of the favorites of King James I: Esmé Stuart, Robert Carr, and George Villiers. Although famous female mistresses (such as Anne Boleyn before her queenship or Madame de Pompadour) often did wield immense political power, there is better historical documentation for the power of male favorites in politics, the military, economics, and other areas of national affairs. Studying visual primary source material allows a new perspective on contemporary thought and propaganda of the time. Certain aspects of character are better communicated through the intricate symbology of the time, and portraiture allows a perfect avenue to bringing those observations to light. The art forms discussed—official depictions as well as engraved prints, which were more easily disseminated to a wider public—had very different audiences and therefore carried different messages. By analyzing these works, we can draw new conclusions about the ways in which the contemporaries of the favorites, regardless of social status, perceived these men. \"Reading” visual and written sources through a queer lens will also provide a depth of understanding missed by earlier sources, which have historically lacked that lens.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"57 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122799647","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
World War I dismantled Imperial Germany and, long after the fighting had ceased, continued to shape the newly-born Weimar Republic. This paper argues that a war over the memory of the Great War in Germany led to Weimar’s downfall. The Weimar Republic’s lack of a collective memory of the first total war became the center of the political debate on the republic’s viability and Germany’s future. This war debate was potently wielded in the arenas of literature and art to heighten political conflict and ensure that the war’s memory seeped into every aspect of society. Ultimately, Weimar’s inability to promote any consensus on the war’s meaning in the face of opposition from the conservative and extremist right weakened the republic significantly and led to its downfall.
{"title":"The Weimar Republic and the War of Memory","authors":"M. Dixon","doi":"10.25172/JOUR.6.2.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/JOUR.6.2.3","url":null,"abstract":"World War I dismantled Imperial Germany and, long after the fighting had ceased, continued to shape the newly-born Weimar Republic. This paper argues that a war over the memory of the Great War in Germany led to Weimar’s downfall. The Weimar Republic’s lack of a collective memory of the first total war became the center of the political debate on the republic’s viability and Germany’s future. This war debate was potently wielded in the arenas of literature and art to heighten political conflict and ensure that the war’s memory seeped into every aspect of society. Ultimately, Weimar’s inability to promote any consensus on the war’s meaning in the face of opposition from the conservative and extremist right weakened the republic significantly and led to its downfall.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126818005","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Volume 6, Issue 1 Front Matter for Digital Publication","authors":"Jessie M. Henderson","doi":"10.25172/jour.6.1.7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/jour.6.1.7","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"55 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126336682","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In order for a country to transform from a society in which rights were severely repressed to a society in which rights are respected and protected, the violations of the past must be properly and adequately addressed. However, instead of using the transition to democracy to confront the country’s history of violence and repression, the Spanish government and society actively stifled the memory of the Civil War and forty-year dictatorship, failing to address the country’s legacy of violence and the victims left in its wake. Despite the Spanish transition being regarded as a remarkable success story, an institutionalized historical amnesia resulted in many oppositional counter-memories as forms of cultural resistance. This paper will demonstrate how repressing memory left the door open for the legacy of political violence to persist in Spain. Prioritizing processes of transitional justice and historical memory is crucial in working toward sustainable peace in Spain and the Basque Region today. This paper will provide an overview of transitional justice and historical memory and an analysis of the impact of Spain’s lack of transitional justice, specifically regarding the politicization of victimhood. It is important to examine the implications of the pacto del olivido (pact of silence) and the 1977 Amnesty Law in rendering Franco’s victims invisible and in sustaining Spain’s legacy of political violence. Furthermore, this paper will explore how the Basque terrorist group, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), carried on Spain’s legacy of political violence for another four decades following the end of the Franco dictatorship. The next section of this paper will analyze how the ‘memory boom’ of the early 2000s led to greater recognition of the victims of Francoism and to the passing of the 2007 Historical Memory Law. This analysis will show how the politicization of victimhood resulted in an inequity between the measures taken to recognize and protect different victims’ groups, subsequently providing more protection for victims of ETA violence. Overall, this paper contends that, in the case of Spain, a lack of transitional justice has perpetuated a long legacy of violence and a silencing of the victims of Francoism that remain unresolved.
为了使一个国家从一个权利受到严重压制的社会转变为一个权利受到尊重和保护的社会，必须适当和充分地处理过去的侵犯行为。然而，西班牙政府和社会没有利用向民主的过渡来面对该国的暴力和镇压历史，而是积极地扼杀了内战和40年独裁统治的记忆，未能解决该国的暴力遗产和受害者。尽管西班牙的转型被认为是一个非凡的成功故事，制度化的历史健忘症导致了许多对立的反记忆作为文化抵抗的形式。本文将展示压抑的记忆如何为政治暴力的遗产在西班牙持续存在打开大门。优先考虑过渡正义和历史记忆的进程对于今天在西班牙和巴斯克地区实现可持续和平至关重要。本文将概述过渡时期的司法和历史记忆，并分析西班牙缺乏过渡时期司法的影响，特别是关于受害者的政治化。审视《沉默条约》(pacto del olivido)和1977年的《大赦法》(Amnesty Law)的影响是很重要的，它们使佛朗哥的受害者变得隐形，并维持了西班牙政治暴力的传统。此外，本文将探讨巴斯克恐怖组织Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA)如何在佛朗哥独裁统治结束后的另一个四十年中继续西班牙的政治暴力遗产。本文的下一部分将分析21世纪初的“记忆热潮”如何导致对弗朗哥主义受害者的更多认识，以及2007年历史记忆法的通过。这一分析将显示，受害者意识的政治化如何导致承认和保护不同受害者群体的措施之间的不平等，从而为埃塔暴力的受害者提供更多的保护。总的来说，本文认为，在西班牙的情况下，缺乏过渡正义使长期遗留下来的暴力和弗朗哥主义受害者的沉默得以延续，这些问题仍未得到解决。
{"title":"A Legacy of Violence: The Lack of Transitional Justice in Post-Franco Spain and its Impact on Victimhood","authors":"Hunter Kolon","doi":"10.25172/JOUR.6.1.4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.25172/JOUR.6.1.4","url":null,"abstract":"In order for a country to transform from a society in which rights were severely repressed to a society in which rights are respected and protected, the violations of the past must be properly and adequately addressed. However, instead of using the transition to democracy to confront the country’s history of violence and repression, the Spanish government and society actively stifled the memory of the Civil War and forty-year dictatorship, failing to address the country’s legacy of violence and the victims left in its wake. Despite the Spanish transition being regarded as a remarkable success story, an institutionalized historical amnesia resulted in many oppositional counter-memories as forms of cultural resistance. This paper will demonstrate how repressing memory left the door open for the legacy of political violence to persist in Spain. Prioritizing processes of transitional justice and historical memory is crucial in working toward sustainable peace in Spain and the Basque Region today. This paper will provide an overview of transitional justice and historical memory and an analysis of the impact of Spain’s lack of transitional justice, specifically regarding the politicization of victimhood. It is important to examine the implications of the pacto del olivido (pact of silence) and the 1977 Amnesty Law in rendering Franco’s victims invisible and in sustaining Spain’s legacy of political violence. Furthermore, this paper will explore how the Basque terrorist group, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), carried on Spain’s legacy of political violence for another four decades following the end of the Franco dictatorship. The next section of this paper will analyze how the ‘memory boom’ of the early 2000s led to greater recognition of the victims of Francoism and to the passing of the 2007 Historical Memory Law. This analysis will show how the politicization of victimhood resulted in an inequity between the measures taken to recognize and protect different victims’ groups, subsequently providing more protection for victims of ETA violence. Overall, this paper contends that, in the case of Spain, a lack of transitional justice has perpetuated a long legacy of violence and a silencing of the victims of Francoism that remain unresolved.","PeriodicalId":221628,"journal":{"name":"SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research","volume":"164 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131477796","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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