Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0006
R. Ousterhout
Early Christian architecture inherited a well-established building industry and followed in the tradition of Roman architecture, as defined by Vitruvius in the first century BCE. Architects were identified by title as mechanikos or architekton, indicating their level of training. With the official acceptance of Christianity, the emperor or the state took a leading role in patronage. Documents mention project supervisors, government overseers, and accountants, as well as skilled and unskilled laborers.
{"title":"Makers, Methods, and Materials","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"Early Christian architecture inherited a well-established building industry and followed in the tradition of Roman architecture, as defined by Vitruvius in the first century BCE. Architects were identified by title as mechanikos or architekton, indicating their level of training. With the official acceptance of Christianity, the emperor or the state took a leading role in patronage. Documents mention project supervisors, government overseers, and accountants, as well as skilled and unskilled laborers.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"70 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116298684","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0010
R. Ousterhout
A unique achievement in the history of architecture and the major monument of Byzantine architecture requires detailed analysis to understand its historical context, planning principles, structural systems, aesthetics, and symbolism. The Great Church was designed quickly—as some unresolved design features and structural flaws reveal—but it was intended to be unique in form and scale, meant to symbolize the dominion of the emperor Justinian, as his army reconquered lost territories in the East and West and in North Africa.
{"title":"The Basilica Transformed","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"A unique achievement in the history of architecture and the major monument of Byzantine architecture requires detailed analysis to understand its historical context, planning principles, structural systems, aesthetics, and symbolism. The Great Church was designed quickly—as some unresolved design features and structural flaws reveal—but it was intended to be unique in form and scale, meant to symbolize the dominion of the emperor Justinian, as his army reconquered lost territories in the East and West and in North Africa.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"9 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127040273","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0019
R. Ousterhout
The masonry architecture of Anatolia is less well preserved than that of Greece, but an analysis of the surviving buildings indicates an interaction between Constantinople and the local centers, evident in the construction techniques and decorative details. In central and eastern Anatolia, contact with Caucasian is evident. Better evidence of Byzantine daily life is provided by the rock-carved settlements in the rough volcanic highland of Cappadocia. Although they appear to replicate masonry forms, the inventiveness of the Cappadocian artisan is often evident in the willful deviations from a masonry prototype.
{"title":"Development of Regional Styles II","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0019","url":null,"abstract":"The masonry architecture of Anatolia is less well preserved than that of Greece, but an analysis of the surviving buildings indicates an interaction between Constantinople and the local centers, evident in the construction techniques and decorative details. In central and eastern Anatolia, contact with Caucasian is evident. Better evidence of Byzantine daily life is provided by the rock-carved settlements in the rough volcanic highland of Cappadocia. Although they appear to replicate masonry forms, the inventiveness of the Cappadocian artisan is often evident in the willful deviations from a masonry prototype.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129397417","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0012
R. Ousterhout
The economic downturn that followed the death of Justinian in 565 was followed by significant loss of territories, including the collapse of the Balkan frontier and the loss of North Africa and Italy. In the East, Byzantium continued to struggle against the Persians and, after 634, the Arabs. Within Byzantium, society was disrupted by the so-called Iconoclast Controversy (726–843). Until the late ninth century, there was limited architectural production, on a reduced scale.
{"title":"The Transitional Period within Byzantium","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0012","url":null,"abstract":"The economic downturn that followed the death of Justinian in 565 was followed by significant loss of territories, including the collapse of the Balkan frontier and the loss of North Africa and Italy. In the East, Byzantium continued to struggle against the Persians and, after 634, the Arabs. Within Byzantium, society was disrupted by the so-called Iconoclast Controversy (726–843). Until the late ninth century, there was limited architectural production, on a reduced scale.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"46 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124825198","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0005
R. Ousterhout
How did the church building become sacred space? This chapter examines the second model: sanctity as represented by the presence of relics or the tombs of martyrs and saints. The popularity of the refrigerium in the fourth century provides ample testimony to the attraction of the tombs of saints and martyrs to the early church. And although the official celebrations ad sanctos were terminated by the end of the century, the cult of saints continued, finding an outlet in the practice of pilgrimage and the veneration of relics. While both were accepted customs, neither was officially sanctioned by the church. They may be best understood as manifestations of popular piety or of private devotion, satisfying the spiritual needs of the individual.
{"title":"Ritual Settings II","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"How did the church building become sacred space? This chapter examines the second model: sanctity as represented by the presence of relics or the tombs of martyrs and saints. The popularity of the refrigerium in the fourth century provides ample testimony to the attraction of the tombs of saints and martyrs to the early church. And although the official celebrations ad sanctos were terminated by the end of the century, the cult of saints continued, finding an outlet in the practice of pilgrimage and the veneration of relics. While both were accepted customs, neither was officially sanctioned by the church. They may be best understood as manifestations of popular piety or of private devotion, satisfying the spiritual needs of the individual.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121789639","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0027
R. Ousterhout
With the weakening of central authority, distinctive regional styles emerge in the Balkan states. Serbia relied heavily on Byzantine styles and Byzantine craftsmen in the early fourteenth century but by the end of the century had developed a distinctive national style, often called the Morava School. Bulgarian architecture maintained close ties to Constantinople, but with a greater emphasis on the decorative features of the exterior. Romania, a latecomer on the scene, found its initial architectural inspiration in Serbia; the region of Moldavia developed a distinctive church architecture with its exterior walls decorated with fresco. Church architecture continued in all these areas to serve the Christian communities after the Ottoman Conquest.
{"title":"Regional Diversity","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0027","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0027","url":null,"abstract":"With the weakening of central authority, distinctive regional styles emerge in the Balkan states. Serbia relied heavily on Byzantine styles and Byzantine craftsmen in the early fourteenth century but by the end of the century had developed a distinctive national style, often called the Morava School. Bulgarian architecture maintained close ties to Constantinople, but with a greater emphasis on the decorative features of the exterior. Romania, a latecomer on the scene, found its initial architectural inspiration in Serbia; the region of Moldavia developed a distinctive church architecture with its exterior walls decorated with fresco. Church architecture continued in all these areas to serve the Christian communities after the Ottoman Conquest.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"146 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128164025","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0023
R. Ousterhout
The new political entities established in the East during the late tenth through twelfth centuries were heavily indebted to Byzantine culture. Christianized from Constantinople, Kievan Rus’ lacked a building tradition in permanent materials and imported both masons and brick technology from Byzantium. Serbia and Bulgaria had a strong Byzantine presence before securing their independence. While Bulgarian architecture followed closely that of Constantinople, Serbia, connected to Adriatic littoral, blended elements of the Italian Romanesque with Byzantine forms.
{"title":"Exporting a Culture/ Importing a Culture","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0023","url":null,"abstract":"The new political entities established in the East during the late tenth through twelfth centuries were heavily indebted to Byzantine culture. Christianized from Constantinople, Kievan Rus’ lacked a building tradition in permanent materials and imported both masons and brick technology from Byzantium. Serbia and Bulgaria had a strong Byzantine presence before securing their independence. While Bulgarian architecture followed closely that of Constantinople, Serbia, connected to Adriatic littoral, blended elements of the Italian Romanesque with Byzantine forms.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"20 5","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133111611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0011
R. Ousterhout
Described in detail by Justinian’s court historian Procopius, Justinian’s building program focused on the center (Constantinople) and the periphery (the limes). Within church architecture, the dome appears as an experimental element structurally, formally, and symbolically. At the same time, traditional architectural forms continue. At the margins of the empire, Justinian’s program of fortification was coupled with spiritual outposts—churches and pilgrimage sites—to spread the message of Orthodox Christianity.
{"title":"Justinian’s Building Program and Sixth-Century Developments","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"Described in detail by Justinian’s court historian Procopius, Justinian’s building program focused on the center (Constantinople) and the periphery (the limes). Within church architecture, the dome appears as an experimental element structurally, formally, and symbolically. At the same time, traditional architectural forms continue. At the margins of the empire, Justinian’s program of fortification was coupled with spiritual outposts—churches and pilgrimage sites—to spread the message of Orthodox Christianity.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"8 4","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"120817736","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0024
R. Ousterhout
A map of the thirteenth-century Mediterranean is almost impossible to draw, with an ever-shifting balance of power and an increasing number of players, as well as cultural interchanges across often hostile frontiers, and this may be reflected in the complexities in the architecture, with new forms developed from heterogeneous sources and cultural interchange between Byzantines, Crusaders, Seljuks, and Armenians. Complexity was not simply the result of cultural interchange or hybridity; rather, it seems to have been an aesthetic choice—one that resonated locally. While betraying larger concerns and associations of the period, the distinctive architectural forms had a special meaning to a regional audience.
{"title":"The Difficult Thirteenth Century","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0024","url":null,"abstract":"A map of the thirteenth-century Mediterranean is almost impossible to draw, with an ever-shifting balance of power and an increasing number of players, as well as cultural interchanges across often hostile frontiers, and this may be reflected in the complexities in the architecture, with new forms developed from heterogeneous sources and cultural interchange between Byzantines, Crusaders, Seljuks, and Armenians. Complexity was not simply the result of cultural interchange or hybridity; rather, it seems to have been an aesthetic choice—one that resonated locally. While betraying larger concerns and associations of the period, the distinctive architectural forms had a special meaning to a regional audience.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128698224","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0028
R. Ousterhout
Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow ascended as the center of Orthodox Christianity, styling itself the “Third Rome.” While influenced by Italian architects and indigenous developments, later Russian architecture reflects the picturesque complexities of the Late Byzantine style. The Ottomans settled in Byzantine territory and relied on Byzantine masons to construct their earliest mosques. With the conquest, they began a competitive discourse with the Byzantine past, turning to the monumentality of Hagia Sophia as their chief source of inspiration. While both the Russians and the Ottomans looked to the Byzantines, their architectures developed in very different ways. Nevertheless, both might be regarded as Byzantium’s legitimate successors.
{"title":"Rival Powers","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0028","url":null,"abstract":"Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow ascended as the center of Orthodox Christianity, styling itself the “Third Rome.” While influenced by Italian architects and indigenous developments, later Russian architecture reflects the picturesque complexities of the Late Byzantine style. The Ottomans settled in Byzantine territory and relied on Byzantine masons to construct their earliest mosques. With the conquest, they began a competitive discourse with the Byzantine past, turning to the monumentality of Hagia Sophia as their chief source of inspiration. While both the Russians and the Ottomans looked to the Byzantines, their architectures developed in very different ways. Nevertheless, both might be regarded as Byzantium’s legitimate successors.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"36 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121439342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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