Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0017
R. Ousterhout
The architectural profession and architectural practices changed dramatically during the Transitional Period. Before that time, architectural creation was theory driven, following the Roman model elaborated by Vitruvius in the first century BCE. By the Middle Byzantine period, architecture had become in effect an illiterate profession, conservatively guided by established workshop practices. When innovation appeared, it was usually on a small scale, affecting the details but not the overall design. Even the language changed: the terms mechanikos (engineer) and architekton (architect) are replaced by oikodomos (builder).
{"title":"Master Builders and their Craft","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0017","url":null,"abstract":"The architectural profession and architectural practices changed dramatically during the Transitional Period. Before that time, architectural creation was theory driven, following the Roman model elaborated by Vitruvius in the first century BCE. By the Middle Byzantine period, architecture had become in effect an illiterate profession, conservatively guided by established workshop practices. When innovation appeared, it was usually on a small scale, affecting the details but not the overall design. Even the language changed: the terms mechanikos (engineer) and architekton (architect) are replaced by oikodomos (builder).","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"14 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121319756","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0015
R. Ousterhout
With the disruptions of the Transitional Period, many Byzantine cities were reduced to villages or simply abandoned. The evidence from Ephesus, Thessalonike, and elsewhere indicates loss of the urban infrastructure, formal spaces converted to utilitarian or industrial purposes, and an emphasis on security. Constantinople continued as a major center, thanks to a radical restructuring and consolidation begun in the eighth century. The transformation of the city may be viewed through the later histories of its major monuments and spaces.
{"title":"Secular Architecture and the Fate of the City","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0015","url":null,"abstract":"With the disruptions of the Transitional Period, many Byzantine cities were reduced to villages or simply abandoned. The evidence from Ephesus, Thessalonike, and elsewhere indicates loss of the urban infrastructure, formal spaces converted to utilitarian or industrial purposes, and an emphasis on security. Constantinople continued as a major center, thanks to a radical restructuring and consolidation begun in the eighth century. The transformation of the city may be viewed through the later histories of its major monuments and spaces.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"33 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123304406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0007
R. Ousterhout
Despite the continuation of pan-Mediterranean commerce through the fifth century and contacts brought about by imperial patronage and pilgrimage, distinctive styles quickly emerged in the different regions of the empire. This chapter contrasts architectural and urban developments at the heart of the Byzantine Empire with those in Italy (Rome, Milan, and Ravenna) and in the eastern provinces: Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Asia Minor.
{"title":"Regional Developments, East and West","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Despite the continuation of pan-Mediterranean commerce through the fifth century and contacts brought about by imperial patronage and pilgrimage, distinctive styles quickly emerged in the different regions of the empire. This chapter contrasts architectural and urban developments at the heart of the Byzantine Empire with those in Italy (Rome, Milan, and Ravenna) and in the eastern provinces: Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Asia Minor.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"48 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121709547","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0004
R. Ousterhout
How did the church building become sacred space? Early Christians understood two models of sacred presence. In the first, sanctity was invoked by the congregation coming together in common prayer, an experience that was formalized into the liturgy. In the second, sanctity was represented by the presence of relics or the tombs of martyrs and saints. In Rome, the early churches inside the walls of the city were primarily liturgical; those outside the walls were commemorative, set in relationship to the tombs of martyrs and the surrounding catacombs and cemeteries. Subsequent centuries witnessed a collapsing of the two categories. At the same time, the building vocabulary expanded, with baptisteries serving as symbolic settings for the initiation rite and mausolea offering special settings for privileged burials. By the fifth century, monasticism became a regular part of the Christian landscape.
{"title":"Ritual Settings I","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"How did the church building become sacred space? Early Christians understood two models of sacred presence. In the first, sanctity was invoked by the congregation coming together in common prayer, an experience that was formalized into the liturgy. In the second, sanctity was represented by the presence of relics or the tombs of martyrs and saints. In Rome, the early churches inside the walls of the city were primarily liturgical; those outside the walls were commemorative, set in relationship to the tombs of martyrs and the surrounding catacombs and cemeteries. Subsequent centuries witnessed a collapsing of the two categories. At the same time, the building vocabulary expanded, with baptisteries serving as symbolic settings for the initiation rite and mausolea offering special settings for privileged burials. By the fifth century, monasticism became a regular part of the Christian landscape.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129328773","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0016
R. Ousterhout
As Constantinople emerged from the Transitional Period, it continued to be a major center for architectural developments, although it stood as the capital of a changed empire. From a purely practical perspective, it was perhaps the only urban center with the scale, income, and patronage to maintain architectural workshops as a fixed part of the workforce. Constantinople also benefitted from architectural developments in its hinterland, notably the monastic centers in Bithynia. As the major entrepôt of the era, Constantinople and its architecture must be understood from an international perspective of import and export, its workshops adopting, adapting, developing, and disseminating architectural forms from across the empire.
{"title":"Constantinople as an Architectural Center","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0016","url":null,"abstract":"As Constantinople emerged from the Transitional Period, it continued to be a major center for architectural developments, although it stood as the capital of a changed empire. From a purely practical perspective, it was perhaps the only urban center with the scale, income, and patronage to maintain architectural workshops as a fixed part of the workforce. Constantinople also benefitted from architectural developments in its hinterland, notably the monastic centers in Bithynia. As the major entrepôt of the era, Constantinople and its architecture must be understood from an international perspective of import and export, its workshops adopting, adapting, developing, and disseminating architectural forms from across the empire.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127689605","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0008
R. Ousterhout
The two centuries following Constantine’s foundation saw the expansion of Constantinople, with palaces, fora, harbors, aqueducts, cisterns, and an impressive system of fortifications. Justinian’s new foundation of Caričin Grad (Iustiniana Prima) gives some sense of the continuity of Late Antique urban planning principles; Resafa (Sergiopolis) was provided with a new set of fortifications and ceremonial spaces; Ephesus demonstrates the urban continuity of long-established cities. Housing types and fortifications follow long-established practices.
{"title":"Secular Architecture","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"The two centuries following Constantine’s foundation saw the expansion of Constantinople, with palaces, fora, harbors, aqueducts, cisterns, and an impressive system of fortifications. Justinian’s new foundation of Caričin Grad (Iustiniana Prima) gives some sense of the continuity of Late Antique urban planning principles; Resafa (Sergiopolis) was provided with a new set of fortifications and ceremonial spaces; Ephesus demonstrates the urban continuity of long-established cities. Housing types and fortifications follow long-established practices.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126852575","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0025
R. Ousterhout
Following the reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, the city experienced a brief cultural revival, marked by significant works of restoration and new construction to reconnect the city to its past glory. Older monastic establishments were expanded, often with large chapels for the privileged burials of the aristocracy. The new architectural style of the period is best represented by the Church of Christ in the Chora Monastery, the best preserved project of the period, characterized by small-scale relationships in its design, picturesque asymmetries, and the lack of a clear relationship between the exterior forms and the interior spaces.
{"title":"Palaiologan Constantinople and a New Architectural Idiom","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0025","url":null,"abstract":"Following the reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, the city experienced a brief cultural revival, marked by significant works of restoration and new construction to reconnect the city to its past glory. Older monastic establishments were expanded, often with large chapels for the privileged burials of the aristocracy. The new architectural style of the period is best represented by the Church of Christ in the Chora Monastery, the best preserved project of the period, characterized by small-scale relationships in its design, picturesque asymmetries, and the lack of a clear relationship between the exterior forms and the interior spaces.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"188 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121433505","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0002
R. Ousterhout
The church basilica adopted in the period of Constantine (after 312 CE) followed the model of Roman civic basilicas and audience halls—that is, it represented a building type without specifically religious associations. Moreover, the basilica form could accommodate large crowds internally and could be easily distinguished externally from pagan temples; their construction literally put Christianity on the urban landscape. Many replaced “house churches” of the pre-Constantinian era or were situated near the graves of martyrs.
{"title":"Rome, the Domus Ecclesiae, and the Church Basilica","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"The church basilica adopted in the period of Constantine (after 312 CE) followed the model of Roman civic basilicas and audience halls—that is, it represented a building type without specifically religious associations. Moreover, the basilica form could accommodate large crowds internally and could be easily distinguished externally from pagan temples; their construction literally put Christianity on the urban landscape. Many replaced “house churches” of the pre-Constantinian era or were situated near the graves of martyrs.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"85 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132045169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0020
R. Ousterhout
After a period of minimal activity, both Armenia and Georgia experienced a flourishing of building in the tenth and early eleventh centuries, with finely carved ashlar construction and sculptural ornamentation, distinct from their contemporary Byzantine counterparts. Some avenues of investigation are suggested for understanding the relationship between Byzantine and Caucasian architecture in this period.
{"title":"Development of Regional Styles III","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0020","url":null,"abstract":"After a period of minimal activity, both Armenia and Georgia experienced a flourishing of building in the tenth and early eleventh centuries, with finely carved ashlar construction and sculptural ornamentation, distinct from their contemporary Byzantine counterparts. Some avenues of investigation are suggested for understanding the relationship between Byzantine and Caucasian architecture in this period.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"10 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130310277","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-12-12DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0022
R. Ousterhout
Increased contact between Byzantium and Western Europe found a variety of architectural manifestations. In Venice, an economic competitor with Constantinople, the imperial Church of the Holy Apostles was replicated at S. Marco as Venice constructed a legendary past for itself. In Norman Sicily of the twelfth century, with its multiethnic, religiously heterogeneous population, a new architecture developed that artfully juxtaposed Byzantine, Western European, and Islamic forms.
{"title":"The Exotic West","authors":"R. Ousterhout","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272739.003.0022","url":null,"abstract":"Increased contact between Byzantium and Western Europe found a variety of architectural manifestations. In Venice, an economic competitor with Constantinople, the imperial Church of the Holy Apostles was replicated at S. Marco as Venice constructed a legendary past for itself. In Norman Sicily of the twelfth century, with its multiethnic, religiously heterogeneous population, a new architecture developed that artfully juxtaposed Byzantine, Western European, and Islamic forms.","PeriodicalId":258635,"journal":{"name":"Eastern Medieval Architecture","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123835986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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