The process of developing the foundations of the free market economy, which took place in Poland in the last decades of the 20th century, resulted in an increase in interest in the issues of entrepreneurship, its role and importance in undertaking new economic initiatives and shaping social attitudes. The restoration of the importance of private property in the economy, the legislative amendments made, including the possibility of setting up companies and running a business, led to an explosion of entrepreneurship on a previously unprecedented scale. A characteristic feature of the transformations carried out in the 1990s was the rapid, often unexpected emergence of business leaders who used favourable circumstances to establish new organisational structures. Entrepreneurs, or rather businessmen – as A. Meducka pointed out – became “undisputed heroes of those times” [Meducka-Potocka A. 2017]. However, have these groups always been positively perceived by Poles in different historical periods? The dynamic development of the private sector and the growing interest in the business environment, observed in the following years, naturally inclined to raise questions about the Polish tradition of entrepreneurship and those who established economic structures on Polish lands throughout the history. The history by providing personal models, according to the well-known saying Verba docet, exempla trahunt, belongs to those disciplines of the science that can be used in shaping certain social attitudes [see: Czechanowski P., Pacanowska R. 2014: 129-149]. Among publications, interviews or manuals, the Polish market was initially dominated by the positions showing well-known entrepreneurs from other cultural circles [Rigby R. 2015]. The most noSTudiA HiSToRiAE oEConoMiCAE
20世纪最后几十年，波兰开展了发展自由市场经济基础的进程，这使人们对创业问题、创业在采取新的经济举措和塑造社会态度方面的作用和重要性越来越感兴趣。私人财产在经济中的重要性得到恢复，立法修正案，包括成立公司和经营企业的可能性，导致了前所未有的创业热潮。20世纪90年代进行的变革的一个特点是，商业领袖的迅速出现，往往是出乎意料的，他们利用有利的环境建立了新的组织结构。正如A.Meducka所指出的，企业家，或者更确切地说是商人，成为了“那个时代无可争议的英雄”[Meducka Potocka A.2017]。然而，在不同的历史时期，这些群体是否总是被波兰人积极看待？在接下来的几年里，私营部门的蓬勃发展和对商业环境日益增长的兴趣，自然倾向于对波兰的创业传统以及历史上在波兰土地上建立经济结构的人提出质疑。根据著名的谚语Verba docet，提供个人模型的历史，是一种典型的狩猎，属于可以用来塑造某些社会态度的科学学科[见：Czechanowski P.，Pacanowska R.2014:129-149]。在出版物、访谈或手册中，波兰市场最初由展示其他文化圈知名企业家的职位主导[Rigby R.2015]。最noSTudiA HiSToRiAE oEConoMiCAE
{"title":"Poczet polskich przedsiębiorców [Polish entrepreneurs’ cluster] (2018). Wydawnictwo Magam, Biblioteka Warsaw Enterprise Institute, Warszawa, pp. 192","authors":"Regina Pacanowska","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0012","url":null,"abstract":"The process of developing the foundations of the free market economy, which took place in Poland in the last decades of the 20th century, resulted in an increase in interest in the issues of entrepreneurship, its role and importance in undertaking new economic initiatives and shaping social attitudes. The restoration of the importance of private property in the economy, the legislative amendments made, including the possibility of setting up companies and running a business, led to an explosion of entrepreneurship on a previously unprecedented scale. A characteristic feature of the transformations carried out in the 1990s was the rapid, often unexpected emergence of business leaders who used favourable circumstances to establish new organisational structures. Entrepreneurs, or rather businessmen – as A. Meducka pointed out – became “undisputed heroes of those times” [Meducka-Potocka A. 2017]. However, have these groups always been positively perceived by Poles in different historical periods? The dynamic development of the private sector and the growing interest in the business environment, observed in the following years, naturally inclined to raise questions about the Polish tradition of entrepreneurship and those who established economic structures on Polish lands throughout the history. The history by providing personal models, according to the well-known saying Verba docet, exempla trahunt, belongs to those disciplines of the science that can be used in shaping certain social attitudes [see: Czechanowski P., Pacanowska R. 2014: 129-149]. Among publications, interviews or manuals, the Polish market was initially dominated by the positions showing well-known entrepreneurs from other cultural circles [Rigby R. 2015]. The most noSTudiA HiSToRiAE oEConoMiCAE","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"244 - 251"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44585754","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract The first decade of the Polish People’s Republic (PPR) saw a radical increase in the number of workers employed in the industry. Many of the new workers were women, whose situation on the job market was much more dynamic than men’s. New staff was mainly recruited from the rural population. Workers were poorly educated and had little work experience, which begs a question regarding the economic rationale behind this process. Some of the new employees could actually be included in the category of “hidden unemployment”. Their marginal productivity equaled zero, which means that their work had no actual impact on the gross national income. Furthermore, such “unemployment at work” negatively impacts morale and work quality, leads to increased staff turnover, and essentially prevents workers from improving their financial situation. Considering the poorer socio-demographic characteristics of women compared to men, one can pose the thesis that the rate of needless employment was significantly higher among women than among men.
{"title":"Women in the Polish Industry — Employment Numbers and Structure in the Years 1945-1956","authors":"J. Chumiński","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0008","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The first decade of the Polish People’s Republic (PPR) saw a radical increase in the number of workers employed in the industry. Many of the new workers were women, whose situation on the job market was much more dynamic than men’s. New staff was mainly recruited from the rural population. Workers were poorly educated and had little work experience, which begs a question regarding the economic rationale behind this process. Some of the new employees could actually be included in the category of “hidden unemployment”. Their marginal productivity equaled zero, which means that their work had no actual impact on the gross national income. Furthermore, such “unemployment at work” negatively impacts morale and work quality, leads to increased staff turnover, and essentially prevents workers from improving their financial situation. Considering the poorer socio-demographic characteristics of women compared to men, one can pose the thesis that the rate of needless employment was significantly higher among women than among men.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"147 - 176"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49047578","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract The study analyses the number of midwives in the counties of Eastern and Western Galicia in census years 1869, 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910, and the ratios per cadastral commune, 10,000 square kilometers, 10,000 civilians and 10,000 women in a county. The analysis was based on Austrian and Galician statistical reports. The results of the study confirmed that Eastern Galicia outnumbered Western Galicia in terms of midwives. However, it was in Western Galicia where the rate of growth was higher, and the effects of the 1910 collapse more moderate. This could have been due to an amendment to the 1897 midwifery regulations. The position of individual counties changed, depending on the year and the specific measure. In Eastern Galicia, Lisko county ranked the worst and Horodenka, Śniatyń, Tarnopol, Trembowla, and Brzozów counties ranked the best. In Western Galicia, Limanowa county ranked the worst, while Brzesko, Kraków, Łańcut, Wadowice, Przeworsk, and Podgórze counties ranked the best. There is a strong positive correlation between the rank and natural conditions (water, soil, climate), type of crops, agricultural development and processing, transport system (road and rail), population, and stimulating function of large urban centers. Favorable conditions were correlated with higher values in measures of the number of midwives.
{"title":"”You Must Swear [...] That Care for the Well-Being and Health of Women in Labor and Their Infants Shall Be the Only Objective of Your Work.” Midwives in the Galician Autonomy — Statistical and Geographical Analysis by Counties","authors":"Sabina Rejman","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0004","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The study analyses the number of midwives in the counties of Eastern and Western Galicia in census years 1869, 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910, and the ratios per cadastral commune, 10,000 square kilometers, 10,000 civilians and 10,000 women in a county. The analysis was based on Austrian and Galician statistical reports. The results of the study confirmed that Eastern Galicia outnumbered Western Galicia in terms of midwives. However, it was in Western Galicia where the rate of growth was higher, and the effects of the 1910 collapse more moderate. This could have been due to an amendment to the 1897 midwifery regulations. The position of individual counties changed, depending on the year and the specific measure. In Eastern Galicia, Lisko county ranked the worst and Horodenka, Śniatyń, Tarnopol, Trembowla, and Brzozów counties ranked the best. In Western Galicia, Limanowa county ranked the worst, while Brzesko, Kraków, Łańcut, Wadowice, Przeworsk, and Podgórze counties ranked the best. There is a strong positive correlation between the rank and natural conditions (water, soil, climate), type of crops, agricultural development and processing, transport system (road and rail), population, and stimulating function of large urban centers. Favorable conditions were correlated with higher values in measures of the number of midwives.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"46 - 66"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45188957","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract The present paper views globalisation and women’s work and exploitation in a micro enterprise in India, the beedi (indigenous cigarette) industry with a case study from one of the states in India. Rural occupational structures and employment patterns in India have undergone a transition in the last few decades due to globalisation. Newer forms of employment like construction work, domestic services and beedi making have become alternatives to agricultural labour for women. Beedi is an indigenous cigarette, in which tobacco is rolled in a tendu leaf and tied with a cotton thread. This is smaller and less expensive than a cigarette and in the popular imagination it stands for the working class. This work is done sitting at home and mostly women and girls do it. This is a very gendered industry, for only women and girls that too from low-income groups make beedis. There is a lot of exploitation in this industry and this has only increased with the advent of globalisation but this is generally ignored by data gathering systems, policy makers and administrators. There is an occupational health hazard too for many of these workers suffer from various health hazards not because they are smoking these beedis but because they are making them.
{"title":"Globalisation and Women’s Work in the Beedi Industry","authors":"Rekha Pande","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0010","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The present paper views globalisation and women’s work and exploitation in a micro enterprise in India, the beedi (indigenous cigarette) industry with a case study from one of the states in India. Rural occupational structures and employment patterns in India have undergone a transition in the last few decades due to globalisation. Newer forms of employment like construction work, domestic services and beedi making have become alternatives to agricultural labour for women. Beedi is an indigenous cigarette, in which tobacco is rolled in a tendu leaf and tied with a cotton thread. This is smaller and less expensive than a cigarette and in the popular imagination it stands for the working class. This work is done sitting at home and mostly women and girls do it. This is a very gendered industry, for only women and girls that too from low-income groups make beedis. There is a lot of exploitation in this industry and this has only increased with the advent of globalisation but this is generally ignored by data gathering systems, policy makers and administrators. There is an occupational health hazard too for many of these workers suffer from various health hazards not because they are smoking these beedis but because they are making them.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"191 - 221"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42288289","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract The text is devoted to women’s presence in the Polish higher education in 1918-2018. Its history is presented in chronological-thematic order, including information about the beginnings of women’s studies at universities as well as their basic political, economic and cultural conditioning. Although during the discussed period, basis of political system in Poland changed three times, there was a constant development of the size of higher education, as well as an increase of women’s participation among students and academic faculty. The beginnings were very modest. However, today women constitute already the majority of students of higher education and almost a half of academic employees. Women, during their fight for equality in access to studies and academic career, had to overcome many legal obstacles, also informal ones, resulting from vitality of the image of traditional social role of women. Even though, the formal equality was gradually earned, it is still more difficult for women than for men to undertake studies at some faculties, and to get higher degrees and academic positions as fast as men.
{"title":"Feminization of Higher Education in Poland in 1918-2018","authors":"Krzysztof Popiński","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0007","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The text is devoted to women’s presence in the Polish higher education in 1918-2018. Its history is presented in chronological-thematic order, including information about the beginnings of women’s studies at universities as well as their basic political, economic and cultural conditioning. Although during the discussed period, basis of political system in Poland changed three times, there was a constant development of the size of higher education, as well as an increase of women’s participation among students and academic faculty. The beginnings were very modest. However, today women constitute already the majority of students of higher education and almost a half of academic employees. Women, during their fight for equality in access to studies and academic career, had to overcome many legal obstacles, also informal ones, resulting from vitality of the image of traditional social role of women. Even though, the formal equality was gradually earned, it is still more difficult for women than for men to undertake studies at some faculties, and to get higher degrees and academic positions as fast as men.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"116 - 146"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46732176","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract Women employed in State Agricultural Farms (SAF) were blue- and white-collar workers, the former group being more numerous. However, the blue-collar workers mainly worked seasonally, during the period of intensive field work. When it comes to fulltime work, it was usually related to animal production. The demand for this type of work decreased with the progress of mechanization. Meanwhile, the demand for white-collar workers, especially those with agricultural education and experience, increased. Since the 1960s, the SAFs increasingly employed women qualified in agronomy, animal production, and veterinary medicine. However, they were not always accepted in positions traditionally considered “masculine”. For most women, work in SAFs was not attractive due to difficult working conditions and low prestige. If a woman decided to work there, it was usually for economic reasons. Most women did not take up professional activity and performed the traditional roles of wives and mothers.
{"title":"Professional Work of Women in State Agricultural Farms (1949–1989) — an Overview","authors":"Małgorzata Machałek","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0009","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Women employed in State Agricultural Farms (SAF) were blue- and white-collar workers, the former group being more numerous. However, the blue-collar workers mainly worked seasonally, during the period of intensive field work. When it comes to fulltime work, it was usually related to animal production. The demand for this type of work decreased with the progress of mechanization. Meanwhile, the demand for white-collar workers, especially those with agricultural education and experience, increased. Since the 1960s, the SAFs increasingly employed women qualified in agronomy, animal production, and veterinary medicine. However, they were not always accepted in positions traditionally considered “masculine”. For most women, work in SAFs was not attractive due to difficult working conditions and low prestige. If a woman decided to work there, it was usually for economic reasons. Most women did not take up professional activity and performed the traditional roles of wives and mothers.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"177 - 190"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42397972","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract This paper aims to analyse the employment of women in banking during the Second Polish Republic (i.e. interwar Poland). The banking sector was small in terms of employment. The number of people associated with this sector was 18.1 thousand in 1921 and 31.2 thousand in 1931, which accounted for 0.5-0.6% of all professionally active workers outside the agricultural sector. The banking community was dominated by men, the number of women working in banks was about 6.1 thousand in 1921 and 8.5 thousand in 1931 (30% of all human resources). This paper presents the nature of jobs performed by women, their positions and earnings. The presentation takes a number of forms: according to bank types, groups of voivodeships, size of the town and according to headquarters and branches. In all cases, the activities and earnings of women and men were compared.
{"title":"Women in Polish banking during the Second Polish Republic","authors":"C. Leszczyńska","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0006","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract This paper aims to analyse the employment of women in banking during the Second Polish Republic (i.e. interwar Poland). The banking sector was small in terms of employment. The number of people associated with this sector was 18.1 thousand in 1921 and 31.2 thousand in 1931, which accounted for 0.5-0.6% of all professionally active workers outside the agricultural sector. The banking community was dominated by men, the number of women working in banks was about 6.1 thousand in 1921 and 8.5 thousand in 1931 (30% of all human resources). This paper presents the nature of jobs performed by women, their positions and earnings. The presentation takes a number of forms: according to bank types, groups of voivodeships, size of the town and according to headquarters and branches. In all cases, the activities and earnings of women and men were compared.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"93 - 115"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49008027","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract Women show greater and greater activity on the job market, they obtain better positions, salaries, etc. However, the statistics concerning their professional activity differ from those of men. We should take into consideration the fact that women are the ones who give birth to children and, in majority, take care of their upbringing, especially in the first years of child’s life. Policies of particular states are different in terms of the amount and availability of family benefits, and that can be reflected in women’s willingness to return to work.
{"title":"Influence of Family Benefits on Women’s Professional Activity. The cases of Poland, the United Kingdom, and France","authors":"Magdalena Kacperska","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0011","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Women show greater and greater activity on the job market, they obtain better positions, salaries, etc. However, the statistics concerning their professional activity differ from those of men. We should take into consideration the fact that women are the ones who give birth to children and, in majority, take care of their upbringing, especially in the first years of child’s life. Policies of particular states are different in terms of the amount and availability of family benefits, and that can be reflected in women’s willingness to return to work.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"37 1","pages":"222 - 243"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43359767","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract Liberalitas was one of the most important forms of social activities of the Roman emperors. In quantitative terms, it is also one of the five most important imperial virtues. It appeared on coins as Liberalitas Augusti, which gave this virtue an additional, divine dimension. The first Empress to depict the idea of imperial generosity on the coins issued on her behalf was Julia Domna. In this respect, her liberalitas coins mark a breakthrough in the exposition of this imperial virtue. The well-known female liberalitas coin issues, or imperial issues with empresses’ portraits, date back to the third century and clearly articulate the liberalitas, both iconographically and literally, through the legend on the reverse of the coin. Other coins, issued on behalf of the emperors (mainly medallions), accentuate in some cases (Julia Mamaea, Salonina) the personal and active participation of women from the imperial house in congiarium-type activities. The issues discussed and analysed, which appeared on behalf of the emperors or the imperial women – with a clear emphasis on the role of women – undoubtedly demonstrate the feminine support for the emperor’s social policy towards the people of Rome, including the various social undertakings of incumbent emperors, to whom they were related. They prove their active involvement and support for the image of the princeps created by the emperors through the propaganda of virtues (such as liberalitas). The dynastic policy of the emperors, in which the empresses played a key role, was also of considerable importance.
{"title":"The Role of Imperial Women in the Monetary Distributions (Liberalitas) in Rome in the Light of Numismatic Sources","authors":"K. Balbuza","doi":"10.2478/sho-2019-0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2478/sho-2019-0002","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Liberalitas was one of the most important forms of social activities of the Roman emperors. In quantitative terms, it is also one of the five most important imperial virtues. It appeared on coins as Liberalitas Augusti, which gave this virtue an additional, divine dimension. The first Empress to depict the idea of imperial generosity on the coins issued on her behalf was Julia Domna. In this respect, her liberalitas coins mark a breakthrough in the exposition of this imperial virtue. The well-known female liberalitas coin issues, or imperial issues with empresses’ portraits, date back to the third century and clearly articulate the liberalitas, both iconographically and literally, through the legend on the reverse of the coin. Other coins, issued on behalf of the emperors (mainly medallions), accentuate in some cases (Julia Mamaea, Salonina) the personal and active participation of women from the imperial house in congiarium-type activities. The issues discussed and analysed, which appeared on behalf of the emperors or the imperial women – with a clear emphasis on the role of women – undoubtedly demonstrate the feminine support for the emperor’s social policy towards the people of Rome, including the various social undertakings of incumbent emperors, to whom they were related. They prove their active involvement and support for the image of the princeps created by the emperors through the propaganda of virtues (such as liberalitas). The dynastic policy of the emperors, in which the empresses played a key role, was also of considerable importance.","PeriodicalId":32183,"journal":{"name":"Studia Historiae Oeconomicae","volume":"23 8","pages":"5 - 24"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41300157","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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