Pub Date : 2019-05-17DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341337
Benjamin Avichai Katz Sinvany
The invention of gunpowder and its first military applications during the Song Warring States period (960-1279) led directly to the invention of the first gun sometime in the thirteenth century. Intense interstate conflict during this period encouraged the Song and its neighbors to experiment with new weapons, as seen by the publication of the Song military text Wujing zongyao in 1044 AD at the end of the Sino-Tangut wars (1040-1045). For the duration of the Song period, aggressive neighbors such as the Khitan Liao (916-1125), the Tangut Xia (1038-1227), the Jurchen Jin (1115-1234), and the Mongols (1190s-1368) shaped Song borders and early gunpowder experimentation. This article uses a geographic information system to examine resource distribution in conjunction with an analysis of the rate of conflict in the East Asian region during the Song Warring States period.
{"title":"Notes on the Invention of the First Gun: Conflict and Innovation in the Song Warring States Period (960-1279)","authors":"Benjamin Avichai Katz Sinvany","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341337","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341337","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000The invention of gunpowder and its first military applications during the Song Warring States period (960-1279) led directly to the invention of the first gun sometime in the thirteenth century. Intense interstate conflict during this period encouraged the Song and its neighbors to experiment with new weapons, as seen by the publication of the Song military text Wujing zongyao in 1044 AD at the end of the Sino-Tangut wars (1040-1045). For the duration of the Song period, aggressive neighbors such as the Khitan Liao (916-1125), the Tangut Xia (1038-1227), the Jurchen Jin (1115-1234), and the Mongols (1190s-1368) shaped Song borders and early gunpowder experimentation. This article uses a geographic information system to examine resource distribution in conjunction with an analysis of the rate of conflict in the East Asian region during the Song Warring States period.","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2019-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341337","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48006584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-05-17DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341338
K. Lee
The Chinese Mission in Japan, which existed from 1946 until Japan regained its sovereignty as a result of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1952, represented the Republic of China in working with the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) in reconstructing postwar Japan. The original objective of the Chinese Mission was to serve as the government’s agency to carry out the repatriation of Japanese troops and civilians from China in coordination with the Allies, secure war reparations from Japan, and try war criminals. However, as President Harry S. Truman terminated US aid to China in 1947 and Guomindang (GMD) military fortunes in the Chinese Civil War declined under the command of Chiang Kai-shek, the Chinese Mission was given an additional assignment: to lobby General Douglas MacArthur to secure military assistance from SCAP. This essay discusses the interaction between the Chinese Mission and General MacArthur during the Chinese Civil War from 1946 to 1949 and examines the way in which the Chinese Mission persuaded him to play a role in the Civil War. This study argues that although it was in opposition to Washington, MacArthur’s determination to assist Chiang Kai-shek was in great part due to the strenuous lobbying of the Chinese Mission in Tokyo. Although MacArthur’s intervention could not reverse the final outcome of the Chinese Civil War, his anti-Communist outlook was formed and played a significant role during the Korean War a year later.
{"title":"The “China Lobby” in Tokyo: The Struggle of China’s Mission in Japan for General Douglas MacArthur’s Military Assistance in the Chinese Civil War, 1946-1949","authors":"K. Lee","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341338","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341338","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000The Chinese Mission in Japan, which existed from 1946 until Japan regained its sovereignty as a result of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1952, represented the Republic of China in working with the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) in reconstructing postwar Japan. The original objective of the Chinese Mission was to serve as the government’s agency to carry out the repatriation of Japanese troops and civilians from China in coordination with the Allies, secure war reparations from Japan, and try war criminals. However, as President Harry S. Truman terminated US aid to China in 1947 and Guomindang (GMD) military fortunes in the Chinese Civil War declined under the command of Chiang Kai-shek, the Chinese Mission was given an additional assignment: to lobby General Douglas MacArthur to secure military assistance from SCAP. This essay discusses the interaction between the Chinese Mission and General MacArthur during the Chinese Civil War from 1946 to 1949 and examines the way in which the Chinese Mission persuaded him to play a role in the Civil War. This study argues that although it was in opposition to Washington, MacArthur’s determination to assist Chiang Kai-shek was in great part due to the strenuous lobbying of the Chinese Mission in Tokyo. Although MacArthur’s intervention could not reverse the final outcome of the Chinese Civil War, his anti-Communist outlook was formed and played a significant role during the Korean War a year later.","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2019-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341338","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47329729","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-05-17DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341343
Clemens Büttner
{"title":"The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers, written by Nicolas Schillinger","authors":"Clemens Büttner","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341343","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341343","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2019-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341343","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48046639","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-05-17DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341340
Kevin Landdeck
{"title":"General He Yingqin: The Rise and Fall of Nationalist China, written by Peter Worthing","authors":"Kevin Landdeck","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341340","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341340","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2019-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341340","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46153072","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-10-16DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341330
Daniel McMahon
This essay explores the administrative and ideological context of Qing borderland pacification through examination of the imperial response to apex rebel ringleaders. Presented are five cases of bureaucratic “discourse” (official description and physical management) processing Lin Shuangwen (1786-1788 Lin Shuangwen Revolt), Shi Sanbao (1795-1797 Miao Revolt), Liu Zhixie (1796-1804 White Lotus Rebellion), Lin Qing (1813 Eight Trigrams Revolt), and Khoja Jahāngīr (1826-1828 Jahāngīr Uprising). Considered comparatively, we find common procedures of identification, deposition, sentencing, and execution that established the challengers as “men of iniquity,” reinforcing imperially preferred understandings of rebel organization, culpability, Qing legitimacy, and martial success. This procedure was also adjusted to fit differing conditions and state goals. As the empire entered its final century, shifting boundaries were asserted between rebel lords and war-zone populations, suggestive of both military efforts to exploit social divisions and expanded embrace of peripheral peoples as compliant and border-defending imperial subjects.
{"title":"Marking “Men of Iniquity”: Imperial Purpose and Imagined Boundaries in the Qing Processing of Rebel Ringleaders, 1786-1828","authors":"Daniel McMahon","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341330","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341330","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000This essay explores the administrative and ideological context of Qing borderland pacification through examination of the imperial response to apex rebel ringleaders. Presented are five cases of bureaucratic “discourse” (official description and physical management) processing Lin Shuangwen (1786-1788 Lin Shuangwen Revolt), Shi Sanbao (1795-1797 Miao Revolt), Liu Zhixie (1796-1804 White Lotus Rebellion), Lin Qing (1813 Eight Trigrams Revolt), and Khoja Jahāngīr (1826-1828 Jahāngīr Uprising). Considered comparatively, we find common procedures of identification, deposition, sentencing, and execution that established the challengers as “men of iniquity,” reinforcing imperially preferred understandings of rebel organization, culpability, Qing legitimacy, and martial success. This procedure was also adjusted to fit differing conditions and state goals. As the empire entered its final century, shifting boundaries were asserted between rebel lords and war-zone populations, suggestive of both military efforts to exploit social divisions and expanded embrace of peripheral peoples as compliant and border-defending imperial subjects.","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2018-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341330","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44425321","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-10-16DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341332
E. McCord
This article uses a case study of Hunan province to examine the role of militia in the struggle for the control of local society during the 1926-1927 National Revolution. Although the Nationalist and Communist Parties both agreed on the need eliminate militia leadership by “local bullies and evil gentry,” differences quickly arose over how to reconstruct militia following this action. Nationalist Party activists tended to favor a “statist” approach that would replace abusive militia leaders with “upright” local elites but place them under stricter and more direct official control. Communist Party activists in contrast sought a “popular” mass militia free of elite influence and controlled by new peasant and worker unions. As such, this struggle over militia command and control became a key component in the broader political competition between the two parties and their alternative revolutionary visions.
{"title":"Militia Command and Control in the Chinese National Revolution, Hunan 1926-1927","authors":"E. McCord","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341332","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341332","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000This article uses a case study of Hunan province to examine the role of militia in the struggle for the control of local society during the 1926-1927 National Revolution. Although the Nationalist and Communist Parties both agreed on the need eliminate militia leadership by “local bullies and evil gentry,” differences quickly arose over how to reconstruct militia following this action. Nationalist Party activists tended to favor a “statist” approach that would replace abusive militia leaders with “upright” local elites but place them under stricter and more direct official control. Communist Party activists in contrast sought a “popular” mass militia free of elite influence and controlled by new peasant and worker unions. As such, this struggle over militia command and control became a key component in the broader political competition between the two parties and their alternative revolutionary visions.","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2018-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341332","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43090665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-10-16DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341328
Eric Setzekorn
{"title":"Military Power and Political Authority in Late Qing and Republican China","authors":"Eric Setzekorn","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341328","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341328","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2018-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341328","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41787748","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-10-16DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341334
Bruce a. Elleman
{"title":"Destined for War: Can America and China Escape Thucydides’s Trap?, written by Graham Allison","authors":"Bruce a. Elleman","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341334","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341334","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2018-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341334","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41345953","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-10-16DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341329
James Bonk
The Ningshan mutiny, a revolt of recent recruits at the Ningshan Green Standard garrison in Shaanxi in 1806, provides a useful case for exploring changing conceptions of military authority in the early nineteenth-century Qing empire. Focusing on contrasting explanations for the mutiny from the immediate aftermath of the mutiny and the Daoguang reign (1821-1850), this article argues that the first half of the nineteenth century saw a growing embrace among statecraft thinkers, military officers, and the Qing court of what Max Weber referred to as charismatic authority. Rather than posing a threat to central control and military discipline, charismatic officers—including the former brigade general of Ningshan, Yang Fang—were viewed as a potential solution to the structural problems facing the Green Standards, the largely Han branch of the Qing military.
{"title":"Rewriting the Ningshan Mutiny: Changing Conceptions of Military Authority in the Early Nineteenth-Century Qing Empire","authors":"James Bonk","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341329","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341329","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000The Ningshan mutiny, a revolt of recent recruits at the Ningshan Green Standard garrison in Shaanxi in 1806, provides a useful case for exploring changing conceptions of military authority in the early nineteenth-century Qing empire. Focusing on contrasting explanations for the mutiny from the immediate aftermath of the mutiny and the Daoguang reign (1821-1850), this article argues that the first half of the nineteenth century saw a growing embrace among statecraft thinkers, military officers, and the Qing court of what Max Weber referred to as charismatic authority. Rather than posing a threat to central control and military discipline, charismatic officers—including the former brigade general of Ningshan, Yang Fang—were viewed as a potential solution to the structural problems facing the Green Standards, the largely Han branch of the Qing military.","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2018-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341329","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47262404","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-10-16DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341331
Eric Setzekorn
During the 1850s and 1860s, the Qing empire re-established political authority after a series of major rebellions that nearly toppled the dynasty. While the Taiping Rebellion was larger in scope, the campaign in Shaanxi is critical to understanding late Qing military history and the complex relationship between warfare, ethnicity, and demographic change in the late nineteenth century. The Qing reconquest of Shaanxi in 1863 resulted in the near elimination of the Muslim population in the province, which was not the intent of senior Imperial commanders, but a byproduct of Qing patterns of warfare and larger ethnic tensions in Shaanxi.
{"title":"Qing Dynasty Warfare and Military Authority: Discipline and the Ethnic Cleansing of 1860s Shaanxi","authors":"Eric Setzekorn","doi":"10.1163/22127453-12341331","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/22127453-12341331","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000During the 1850s and 1860s, the Qing empire re-established political authority after a series of major rebellions that nearly toppled the dynasty. While the Taiping Rebellion was larger in scope, the campaign in Shaanxi is critical to understanding late Qing military history and the complex relationship between warfare, ethnicity, and demographic change in the late nineteenth century. The Qing reconquest of Shaanxi in 1863 resulted in the near elimination of the Muslim population in the province, which was not the intent of senior Imperial commanders, but a byproduct of Qing patterns of warfare and larger ethnic tensions in Shaanxi.","PeriodicalId":38003,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Chinese Military History","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2018-10-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1163/22127453-12341331","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46613579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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