Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.23.4_259
Kiyoshi Kurashige
A few typical cases of unusual high or low mean sea level are selected from the tidal data for Tokyo Bay by the following ways: (1) Unusual days are selected at each station under the condition that the magnitude of daily mean tidal residual be more than twice its standard deviation. (2) We take up those cases in which more than three consecutive unusual days occur simultaneously in the whole area of Tokyo Bay. Both meteorological and oceanographic factors are considered in connection with the occurrence of unusual high or low sea level, which takes place once a year or so. At such times the weather condition is rather gentle in general, and the oceanic condition seems to be responsible for the unusual rise or fall. Warmer sea surface temperature is likely to be associated with the rising of the sea level and colder temperature with the falling. In the inner part of the bay, the land and sea breezes are related to these variations, so that the former (southerly wind) I serves to raise up warmer water, and the latter (northerly wind) to drive out colder water.
{"title":"Unusually High Mean Sea Level in September 1971 Along the South Coast of Japan","authors":"Kiyoshi Kurashige","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.23.4_259","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.23.4_259","url":null,"abstract":"A few typical cases of unusual high or low mean sea level are selected from the tidal data for Tokyo Bay by the following ways: (1) Unusual days are selected at each station under the condition that the magnitude of daily mean tidal residual be more than twice its standard deviation. (2) We take up those cases in which more than three consecutive unusual days occur simultaneously in the whole area of Tokyo Bay. Both meteorological and oceanographic factors are considered in connection with the occurrence of unusual high or low sea level, which takes place once a year or so. At such times the weather condition is rather gentle in general, and the oceanic condition seems to be responsible for the unusual rise or fall. Warmer sea surface temperature is likely to be associated with the rising of the sea level and colder temperature with the falling. In the inner part of the bay, the land and sea breezes are related to these variations, so that the former (southerly wind) I serves to raise up warmer water, and the latter (northerly wind) to drive out colder water.","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69031334","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.21.2_73
Iwao Tsuchiya
It is well known that year-to-year variations of rainfall are very peculiar over the so called equatorial Pacific dry zone which extends from the Peru coast to 180° or further west along the equator. As a result of investigating the world precipitation and precipitation anomaly distribution maps which are included in "Die Witterung in Ubersee (1953— )" by Hamburg Seewetteramt, the author recognized that there are very scanty rainfalls in the India—Indonesia region when there are anomalous plentiful rainfalls in the dry zone islands. These events occurred in 1957, 1958, 1965 and 1966. And in 1955, 1956 and 1962, reverse types are recognizable. Further investigations of the long-period Indian flood and drought data and the rainfall data of Ocean Island and Fanning Island in the dry zone have shown that the above mentioned reverse phase rainfall variations between India and the equatorial Pacific had occurred in earlier years. In addition to the relationships between these peculiar rainfall fluctuations and the influences of the southeast trades, we should. recognize the effect of mid-latitude westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere because anomalous rainfall distributions that occurred in 1957-58 and 1965-66, when the southern westerlies were very weak, especially in a winter month (July). Recently Walker's southern oscillation advanced to the new zonal and tropospheric circulation model in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes, which is named the Walker circulation by BJERKNES (1969). It * This work was performed as part of the group studies on "Water Balance of Monsoon Asia" with the support of the Department of Education in Japan (Hydrology 1969—No. 91012). is possible to say that the variations of southern westerlies play an important role in the weakening or strengthening of the Walker circulation through the variations of sea-surface temperature under the southeast trades.
众所周知，在所谓的赤道太平洋干区，降雨量的年变化是非常奇特的。赤道太平洋干区从秘鲁海岸延伸到赤道以西180°或更远的地方。通过对Hamburg Seewetteramt的《Die Witterung in Ubersee(1953 -)》中世界降水和降水异常分布图的考察，笔者认识到，在干旱区岛屿雨量异常充沛的情况下，印度-印度尼西亚地区降水非常稀少。这些事件分别发生在1957年、1958年、1965年和1966年。在1955年，1956年和1962年，反向类型是可以辨认的。进一步研究印度的长周期洪涝和干旱资料以及干旱区洋岛和范宁岛的降雨资料表明，上述印度与赤道太平洋之间的逆相降水变化早在几年就发生过。除了这些奇特的降水波动与东南贸易的影响之间的关系外，我们还应该。认识到南半球中纬度西风带的影响，因为在1957-58年和1965-66年发生了异常的降水分布，当时南部西风带非常弱，特别是在冬季月份(7月)。最近Walker南方涛动推进到热带和副热带纬向和对流层环流新模式，BJERKNES(1969)将其命名为Walker环流。*这项工作是在日本教育部的支持下，作为“亚洲季风水平衡”小组研究的一部分进行的(水文学1969-No . 1)。91012)。可以说，南西风带的变化通过东南环流下海面温度的变化对沃克环流的减弱或增强起着重要作用。
{"title":"Year-to-year Variations of Rainfall over the India-Equatorial Pacific Region and of Low and Middle Latitude Circulations in the Southern Hemisphere","authors":"Iwao Tsuchiya","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.21.2_73","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.21.2_73","url":null,"abstract":"It is well known that year-to-year variations of rainfall are very peculiar over the so called equatorial Pacific dry zone which extends from the Peru coast to 180° or further west along the equator. As a result of investigating the world precipitation and precipitation anomaly distribution maps which are included in \"Die Witterung in Ubersee (1953— )\" by Hamburg Seewetteramt, the author recognized that there are very scanty rainfalls in the India—Indonesia region when there are anomalous plentiful rainfalls in the dry zone islands. These events occurred in 1957, 1958, 1965 and 1966. And in 1955, 1956 and 1962, reverse types are recognizable. Further investigations of the long-period Indian flood and drought data and the rainfall data of Ocean Island and Fanning Island in the dry zone have shown that the above mentioned reverse phase rainfall variations between India and the equatorial Pacific had occurred in earlier years. In addition to the relationships between these peculiar rainfall fluctuations and the influences of the southeast trades, we should. recognize the effect of mid-latitude westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere because anomalous rainfall distributions that occurred in 1957-58 and 1965-66, when the southern westerlies were very weak, especially in a winter month (July). Recently Walker's southern oscillation advanced to the new zonal and tropospheric circulation model in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes, which is named the Walker circulation by BJERKNES (1969). It * This work was performed as part of the group studies on \"Water Balance of Monsoon Asia\" with the support of the Department of Education in Japan (Hydrology 1969—No. 91012). is possible to say that the variations of southern westerlies play an important role in the weakening or strengthening of the Walker circulation through the variations of sea-surface temperature under the southeast trades.","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69030981","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.12.2_129
S. Nemoto
Applying the relation obtained in the similarity theory of turbulence, it has been already theoretically obtained in Part I that the
应用湍流相似理论中得到的关系，在第一部分中已经从理论上得到了
{"title":"Similarity between Natural Wind in the Atmosphere and Model Wind in a Wind Tunnel ( III )","authors":"S. Nemoto","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.12.2_129","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.12.2_129","url":null,"abstract":"Applying the relation obtained in the similarity theory of turbulence, it has been already theoretically obtained in Part I that the","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.2467/mripapers1950.12.2_129","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69027336","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.14.3-4_127
H. Arakawa, D. Manabe
The structure of the typhoon is extremely fiat, since its altitude is very small compared with the scale of the stormy area. When we consider, hydrodynamically, the distribution of meteorological elements within typhoons and travelling cyclones, we may find in them close relation with shallow water phenomena that can be seen in a small depth of water. We made theoretical analysis and experimental observation of that fact during the recent four-year period, and got fruitful results in this spring.
{"title":"Investigation of Spiral Rain Bands and Frontal Structures in Terms of Shallow Water Waves*","authors":"H. Arakawa, D. Manabe","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.14.3-4_127","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.14.3-4_127","url":null,"abstract":"The structure of the typhoon is extremely fiat, since its altitude is very small compared with the scale of the stormy area. When we consider, hydrodynamically, the distribution of meteorological elements within typhoons and travelling cyclones, we may find in them close relation with shallow water phenomena that can be seen in a small depth of water. We made theoretical analysis and experimental observation of that fact during the recent four-year period, and got fruitful results in this spring.","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"43 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69027945","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.12.3-4_248
M. Misaki
A newly designed apparatus for measuring the mobility spectrum of atmospheric ions was constructed in 1959, on the basis of the method previously developed by the author. After the examination of the air flow pattern through the aspiration cylinder, measurements of the mobility spectrum have been resumed since 1960. Two ion probes were used in the present studies with different diameters and with the same length to scan the mobility ranges of 30.1 and 0.1-0.005 cm2/volt sec, respectively. Dedails on the experimental set-up, procedures of experiments and practical treatments of data analysis are described in this paper.
{"title":"Studies on the Atmospheric Ion Spectrum (I)","authors":"M. Misaki","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.12.3-4_248","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.12.3-4_248","url":null,"abstract":"A newly designed apparatus for measuring the mobility spectrum of atmospheric ions was constructed in 1959, on the basis of the method previously developed by the author. After the examination of the air flow pattern through the aspiration cylinder, measurements of the mobility spectrum have been resumed since 1960. Two ion probes were used in the present studies with different diameters and with the same length to scan the mobility ranges of 30.1 and 0.1-0.005 cm2/volt sec, respectively. Dedails on the experimental set-up, procedures of experiments and practical treatments of data analysis are described in this paper.","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69027449","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.24.2_249
Masashi Suzuki
The effects of the environmental wind and temperature fields on the measurement of net flux of radiation by conventional net radiometers are examined. The variation in output of the net radiometer due to the wind field exceeds ten percent for both FUNK'S net radiometer ("wind shield-type" net radiometer) and GIER and DUNKLE'S net radiometer ("ventilation-type" net radiometer) in the ranges of wind speeds, vertical temperature gradients and incident radiation fluxes concerned. And as for FUNK'S net radiometer the more accurate value of net flux of radiation is expected to be obtained in the windy condition rather than in the calm condition. The devices hitherto available for calibrating net radiometers for longwave radiation are discussed in brief and our new device is presented.
{"title":"On the Calibration of the Radiometer for Longwave Radiation (I)","authors":"Masashi Suzuki","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.24.2_249","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.24.2_249","url":null,"abstract":"The effects of the environmental wind and temperature fields on the measurement of net flux of radiation by conventional net radiometers are examined. The variation in output of the net radiometer due to the wind field exceeds ten percent for both FUNK'S net radiometer (\"wind shield-type\" net radiometer) and GIER and DUNKLE'S net radiometer (\"ventilation-type\" net radiometer) in the ranges of wind speeds, vertical temperature gradients and incident radiation fluxes concerned. And as for FUNK'S net radiometer the more accurate value of net flux of radiation is expected to be obtained in the windy condition rather than in the calm condition. The devices hitherto available for calibrating net radiometers for longwave radiation are discussed in brief and our new device is presented.","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69031200","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.29.3_125
Shoin Yagi, Yasusi Okamura
Various one-way nesting techniques so far presented are tested in order to decide the best technique from a practical standpoint. Nesting schemes tested here are : (1) Schemes with special care to avoid over-specification as a boundary value problem. i) The scheme with simple extrapolation (referred to as SE-scheme) ii) The scheme of SundstrOm (1973) (SS-scheme) iii) The scheme modified by taking account of gradient value of coarse mesh model in extrapolation (SG-scheme) iv) The scheme of Okamura (1975) (SO-cheme) (2) The scheme of Orlanski (1976) with Sommerfeld's radiation condition (0-scheme) (3) The scheme of Perkey & Kreizberg (1976) in which the tendency is smoothed in the lateral boundary layer (T-scheme) (4) The scheme with Newtonian damping in the lateral boundary layer i) Davies' method (1976) (D1-scheme) ii) The scheme utilizing simple Newtonian damping (Do-scheme) Numerical tests for comparison are done under the following conditions : (1) Tests in which the phase velocity error is given in the outer domain during the forecasting period. (Test 1) (2) Tests in which isolated disturbance is given in the inner fine mesh domain at intial time. (Test 2) Results of the test are as follows : (1) T-scheme is the best one because of its least deviation from the control run and the computationally stable results. (2) Dr-scheme and Do-scheme are the second best. Little difference is found between the results of the two schemes. Damping coefficient used in these tests seems to cause more error than in T-scheme because of its inadequately large value. (3) Among the SE-, SS-, SO-, o-, and SG-schemes, SG-scheme gives the least error. The error in that scheme is the same order as that in D1-scheme within 24 hours forecast. But, for longer time integration,, the results of SG-scheme tend to be unstable. (4) When 0-scheme is adopted, results are very sensitive to the way in which the phase velocity of the disturbances near the boundary is estimated. 126S. Yagi and Y. OkamuraVol. 29, No. 3
{"title":"Comparisons of One-way Nesting Schemes by","authors":"Shoin Yagi, Yasusi Okamura","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.29.3_125","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.29.3_125","url":null,"abstract":"Various one-way nesting techniques so far presented are tested in order to decide the best technique from a practical standpoint. Nesting schemes tested here are : (1) Schemes with special care to avoid over-specification as a boundary value problem. i) The scheme with simple extrapolation (referred to as SE-scheme) ii) The scheme of SundstrOm (1973) (SS-scheme) iii) The scheme modified by taking account of gradient value of coarse mesh model in extrapolation (SG-scheme) iv) The scheme of Okamura (1975) (SO-cheme) (2) The scheme of Orlanski (1976) with Sommerfeld's radiation condition (0-scheme) (3) The scheme of Perkey & Kreizberg (1976) in which the tendency is smoothed in the lateral boundary layer (T-scheme) (4) The scheme with Newtonian damping in the lateral boundary layer i) Davies' method (1976) (D1-scheme) ii) The scheme utilizing simple Newtonian damping (Do-scheme) Numerical tests for comparison are done under the following conditions : (1) Tests in which the phase velocity error is given in the outer domain during the forecasting period. (Test 1) (2) Tests in which isolated disturbance is given in the inner fine mesh domain at intial time. (Test 2) Results of the test are as follows : (1) T-scheme is the best one because of its least deviation from the control run and the computationally stable results. (2) Dr-scheme and Do-scheme are the second best. Little difference is found between the results of the two schemes. Damping coefficient used in these tests seems to cause more error than in T-scheme because of its inadequately large value. (3) Among the SE-, SS-, SO-, o-, and SG-schemes, SG-scheme gives the least error. The error in that scheme is the same order as that in D1-scheme within 24 hours forecast. But, for longer time integration,, the results of SG-scheme tend to be unstable. (4) When 0-scheme is adopted, results are very sensitive to the way in which the phase velocity of the disturbances near the boundary is estimated. 126S. Yagi and Y. OkamuraVol. 29, No. 3","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"4 5 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69032191","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.24.3_289
Takashi, Nitta
Frequency of cyclogenesis of intermediate-scale disturbances is surveyed over the Far East. We take up the following two items as the definition of the intermediate-scale disturbance: (1) The characteristic wavelength lies between 1,000 km and 2,000 km. (2) At the initial stage of the formation, the disturbance does not couple with upper troughs and is mostly confined to the lower part of the troposphere. The disturbance is usually formed on an extended front. Five-year statistics for the period 1966-70 show that on the average the monthly frequency in the first half year is in excess of the total average number and that in the second half year is less than that (Fig. 1). However, features of the frequency distribution vary conspicuously from year to year (Table 1). Regardless of the year-toyear variation, we may describe the gross features of spatial distribution of cyclogenesis as follows : (a) In winter, most of the spots distribute over the sea off the southern coast of the Japan islands, (b) As the year advances to spring and early summer, intermediatescale disturbances appear in the lower latitudes. The horizontal distribution of cyclogenesis in July makes a zone centering on the Baiu front. (c) In autumn, the place of frequent cyclogenesis shifts northward and the disturbance disappears from the southwest Pacific. (d) The birthplace of the cyclone moves down to the south in winter (Fig. 2)'. Comparison of the distribution with the monthly mean 500 mb pattern suggests the close connection between the cyclogenesis of intermediate-scale disturbances and the general circulation of the atmosphere (Fig. 3). In short, we may say that in a year when the mean pattern shows a zonal or flat flow, the number of cyclones generated increases and that in a year when the upper long wave trough anchors in the west of Japan, the number descreases and the cyclogenesis of the ordinary baroclinic wave becomes active. * Concurrently appointed to the Meteorological Research Institute . 290 T. Nitta and J. Yamamoto Vol. XXIV No. 3
调查了远东地区中尺度扰动的气旋发生频率。我们将以下两点作为中尺度扰动的定义:(1)特征波长在1,000 km ~ 2,000 km之间。(2)在形成初期，扰动不与上层低槽耦合，主要局限于对流层下层。这种扰动通常形成于延伸的锋面上。1966- 1970年的5年统计数据显示，平均而言，上半年的月平均次数大于总平均次数，下半年的月平均次数小于总平均次数(图1)，但频率分布的年际变化特征明显(表1)。不考虑年际变化，我们可以将气旋形成空间分布的大体特征描述为:(a)在冬季，大多数黑点分布在日本岛屿南部海岸外的海面上;(b)随着年景进入春季和初夏，中尺度扰动出现在低纬度地区。7月气旋形成的水平分布以白球锋为中心。(c)在秋季，频繁的气旋形成地点北移，西南太平洋的扰动消失。(d)气旋的诞生地在冬季向南移动(图2)。与月平均500 mb型的分布对比表明，中尺度扰动的气旋形成与大气环流密切相关(图3)。简而言之，我们可以说，在平均型为纬向流或平坦流的年份，气旋的产生次数增加，而在日本西部上层长波槽锚定的年份，数目减少，普通斜压波的气旋形成变得活跃。*兼任气象研究所研究员。[29]尼塔、山本，第24卷第3期
{"title":"A Diagnosis of the Formation of Intermediate-scale Disturbances near Japan, the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia","authors":"Takashi, Nitta","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.24.3_289","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.24.3_289","url":null,"abstract":"Frequency of cyclogenesis of intermediate-scale disturbances is surveyed over the Far East. We take up the following two items as the definition of the intermediate-scale disturbance: (1) The characteristic wavelength lies between 1,000 km and 2,000 km. (2) At the initial stage of the formation, the disturbance does not couple with upper troughs and is mostly confined to the lower part of the troposphere. The disturbance is usually formed on an extended front. Five-year statistics for the period 1966-70 show that on the average the monthly frequency in the first half year is in excess of the total average number and that in the second half year is less than that (Fig. 1). However, features of the frequency distribution vary conspicuously from year to year (Table 1). Regardless of the year-toyear variation, we may describe the gross features of spatial distribution of cyclogenesis as follows : (a) In winter, most of the spots distribute over the sea off the southern coast of the Japan islands, (b) As the year advances to spring and early summer, intermediatescale disturbances appear in the lower latitudes. The horizontal distribution of cyclogenesis in July makes a zone centering on the Baiu front. (c) In autumn, the place of frequent cyclogenesis shifts northward and the disturbance disappears from the southwest Pacific. (d) The birthplace of the cyclone moves down to the south in winter (Fig. 2)'. Comparison of the distribution with the monthly mean 500 mb pattern suggests the close connection between the cyclogenesis of intermediate-scale disturbances and the general circulation of the atmosphere (Fig. 3). In short, we may say that in a year when the mean pattern shows a zonal or flat flow, the number of cyclones generated increases and that in a year when the upper long wave trough anchors in the west of Japan, the number descreases and the cyclogenesis of the ordinary baroclinic wave becomes active. * Concurrently appointed to the Meteorological Research Institute . 290 T. Nitta and J. Yamamoto Vol. XXIV No. 3","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69031799","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.9.1_25
H. Arakawa
Investigation has shown that the clear-air turbulence encountered by aircraft appears to occur (1) bellow the jet isotach-max and on its north, or cyclonic, side ; and (2) above the jet isotach-max and on its south, or anticyclonic, side. Through the use of two stability criteria which have been given by the present author, one might hope to arrive at an explanation for the phenomenon of clear-air turbulence. Past studies on the high-level clear-air turbulence present many interesting features. British and American investigators [BANNON (1951, 1952) , SHAEFER and HUBERT (1955), LAKE (1956)] made one of the earliest extensive studies of this problem. Recently, Project Cloud Trail has been established within the USAF Air Defense Command, and the observational phase of the project ran for the one-year period from December, 1954 to December, 1955. The analysed results of Project Cloud Fig. 1 Vertical and horizontal cross sections of the typical distribution of turbulence around the jet-stream Max-Isotach Center of 1500 Z, January 24, 1955. After LERoy H. CLEM (1957) . 26H. ArakawaVol. IX No. 1 Trail by CLEM (1957) are of interest in conjunction with the jet-stream situation. In Fig. 1, vertical and horizontal cross sections are reproduced to illustrate the typical distribution of turbulence around a jet-stream max-isotach center. There appears to be a greater probability of occurrence of the intense turbulence (1) below the jet isotach-max and on its north, or cyclonic, side and (2) above the jet isotach-max and on its south, or anticyclonic, side. The synoptic situation in this case is reproduced in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 Distribution of observed turbulence in relation to the jet stream-1500 Z, January 24, 1955. Dashed lines are isotachs (in knots) at 300 mb. Solid lines are the jet stream axes. Number above the station circle is the altitude (in thousands of ft) of the most pronounced turbulence during climb of aircraft. Intensity of turbulence is indicated by appropriate symbols. After LERoy H. CLEM (197). RICHARDSON (1920) has developed a criterion for the increase or decrease of atmospheric turbulence where there is wind shear in the vertical. He postulates that turbulent flow will continue if the rate of supply of energy by eddy stresses is equal to or greater than the work done to maintain the turbulence against any stabilizing force. The RICHARDSON number is given by _MO rexpianauun in cue rnenumenun ui Lacar-ztit i ut uulciluc GI where g is the accerelation of gravity, T the absolute temperature, aT/az the observec lapse rate, P the adiabatic lapse rate and avx/az and avy/az are the components of the vertical wind shear. The critical value to the RICHARDSON number has been assigned ranging from 1/4 to unity. SOLBERG (1939) has discussed the vanishing of the absolute vorticity in the case of transition to instability. The vertical component of the absolute vorticity in a zonal current i is given by where y is the meridional coordinate pointing northw
调查表明，飞机遇到的晴空乱流似乎发生在(1)射流等速最大值以下，并在其北面或气旋侧;(2)在急流等速最大值上方，在其南侧，或反气旋侧。通过使用本作者所给出的两个稳定性判据，人们可能希望对晴空乱流现象作出解释。过去对高空晴空湍流的研究呈现出许多有趣的特征。英美研究者[BANNON (1951, 1952)， SHAEFER和HUBERT (1955)， LAKE(1956)]对这一问题进行了最早的广泛研究之一。最近，美国空军防空司令部建立了“云径”计划，该计划的观测阶段从1954年12月到1955年12月为期一年。图1 1955年1月24日1500z急流最大等线中心附近典型湍流分布的垂直和水平截面源自LERoy H. CLEM(1957)。26个小时。ArakawaVol。CLEM的9号1号航迹(1957)与急流情况有关。在图1中，再现了垂直和水平截面，以说明急流最大等距中心周围湍流的典型分布。(1)在急流等速最大值以下，在它的北侧或气旋侧出现强烈湍流的可能性更大;(2)在急流等速最大值以上，在它的南侧或反气旋侧出现强烈湍流。图2再现了这种情况下的天气情况。图2 1955年1月24日与急流1500 Z有关的观测湍流分布。虚线是300毫巴的等温线(以节为单位)。实线是急流轴。站圈上方的数字是飞机爬升过程中最明显的湍流高度(以千英尺为单位)。湍流的强度用适当的符号表示。源自LERoy H. CLEM(1997)。理查德森(1920)提出了在垂直方向存在风切变时大气湍流增加或减少的判据。他假设，如果涡流应力提供能量的速率等于或大于为维持湍流而对任何稳定力所做的功，湍流将继续。其中g为重力加速度，T为绝对温度，aT/az为观测递减率，P为绝热递减率，avx/az和avy/az为垂直风切变分量。理查德森数的临界值从1/4到1不等。SOLBERG(1939)讨论了过渡到不稳定状态时绝对涡度的消失。纬向流i中绝对涡度的垂直分量由y为指向北方的子午坐标，co为地球角速度，0为纬度，u为西风速度，R为地球半径给出。如果为负，则运动是动态不稳定的。这种不稳定可能出现在强急流的南侧。ARAKAWA (1951 a)给出了强急流以北的气旋切变区动态湍流的另一个判据。根据他的理论，对于纬向流来说，气旋切变的临界值为:这个临界值通常在发达急流以北的狭窄区域实现。如图1和图2所示，事实上，大多数晴空湍流都来自这个强气旋切变区。动态湍流的最后一个判据[ARAKAWA (1951 b, 1957)]与风速的垂直梯度有关。临界负风切变(风速随高度减小)近似为:如图1所示，事实上，晴空湍流与负切变有关，而在急流以南的狭窄区域没有正切变的湍流。世界气象组织气候学委员会推荐的急流的定义[第二届会议的最终报告节选，巴黎，1957年6月18日至7月5日，第48页]是“风的垂直切变为每公里5 -40米/秒，侧向切变为每100公里5米/秒”。因此，在满足式(3)和式(4)的强垂直和侧向风切变特征的任何急流附近都存在窄带。
{"title":"Possible Criteria of an Explanation of the Phenomenon of Clear-air Turbulence Encountered by Aircraft","authors":"H. Arakawa","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.9.1_25","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.9.1_25","url":null,"abstract":"Investigation has shown that the clear-air turbulence encountered by aircraft appears to occur (1) bellow the jet isotach-max and on its north, or cyclonic, side ; and (2) above the jet isotach-max and on its south, or anticyclonic, side. Through the use of two stability criteria which have been given by the present author, one might hope to arrive at an explanation for the phenomenon of clear-air turbulence. Past studies on the high-level clear-air turbulence present many interesting features. British and American investigators [BANNON (1951, 1952) , SHAEFER and HUBERT (1955), LAKE (1956)] made one of the earliest extensive studies of this problem. Recently, Project Cloud Trail has been established within the USAF Air Defense Command, and the observational phase of the project ran for the one-year period from December, 1954 to December, 1955. The analysed results of Project Cloud Fig. 1 Vertical and horizontal cross sections of the typical distribution of turbulence around the jet-stream Max-Isotach Center of 1500 Z, January 24, 1955. After LERoy H. CLEM (1957) . 26H. ArakawaVol. IX No. 1 Trail by CLEM (1957) are of interest in conjunction with the jet-stream situation. In Fig. 1, vertical and horizontal cross sections are reproduced to illustrate the typical distribution of turbulence around a jet-stream max-isotach center. There appears to be a greater probability of occurrence of the intense turbulence (1) below the jet isotach-max and on its north, or cyclonic, side and (2) above the jet isotach-max and on its south, or anticyclonic, side. The synoptic situation in this case is reproduced in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 Distribution of observed turbulence in relation to the jet stream-1500 Z, January 24, 1955. Dashed lines are isotachs (in knots) at 300 mb. Solid lines are the jet stream axes. Number above the station circle is the altitude (in thousands of ft) of the most pronounced turbulence during climb of aircraft. Intensity of turbulence is indicated by appropriate symbols. After LERoy H. CLEM (197). RICHARDSON (1920) has developed a criterion for the increase or decrease of atmospheric turbulence where there is wind shear in the vertical. He postulates that turbulent flow will continue if the rate of supply of energy by eddy stresses is equal to or greater than the work done to maintain the turbulence against any stabilizing force. The RICHARDSON number is given by _MO rexpianauun in cue rnenumenun ui Lacar-ztit i ut uulciluc GI where g is the accerelation of gravity, T the absolute temperature, aT/az the observec lapse rate, P the adiabatic lapse rate and avx/az and avy/az are the components of the vertical wind shear. The critical value to the RICHARDSON number has been assigned ranging from 1/4 to unity. SOLBERG (1939) has discussed the vanishing of the absolute vorticity in the case of transition to instability. The vertical component of the absolute vorticity in a zonal current i is given by where y is the meridional coordinate pointing northw","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69041807","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2012-01-01DOI: 10.2467/mripapers1950.23.4_287
Toyoaki Tanaka
It was found that the water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (poval) film is available for the size measurement of water droplets about 10 to 300 ?? in diameter. The relation between the diameters of droplets (d) and those of their traces on the film (D) was expressed by the following empirical equation D=4.54 d0.8, and the calibration curve was presented in Fig. 4. It was found that the calibration curve could be extended to larger drops of about 4 mm in diameter. The poval film is further available as a specimen supporter for the electron microscope. For example, the size of a trace of small droplets on the film can be measured with an electron microscope and besides some materials contained in a droplet can be identified by the electron diffraction method.
{"title":"The Method for Measuring Water. Droplets by Means of Polyvinyl Alcohol (Poval) Film","authors":"Toyoaki Tanaka","doi":"10.2467/mripapers1950.23.4_287","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2467/mripapers1950.23.4_287","url":null,"abstract":"It was found that the water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (poval) film is available for the size measurement of water droplets about 10 to 300 ?? in diameter. The relation between the diameters of droplets (d) and those of their traces on the film (D) was expressed by the following empirical equation D=4.54 d0.8, and the calibration curve was presented in Fig. 4. It was found that the calibration curve could be extended to larger drops of about 4 mm in diameter. The poval film is further available as a specimen supporter for the electron microscope. For example, the size of a trace of small droplets on the film can be measured with an electron microscope and besides some materials contained in a droplet can be identified by the electron diffraction method.","PeriodicalId":39821,"journal":{"name":"Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69031465","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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