C. G. Robertson, J. D. Suter, Mark A. Bauman, R. Stoček, William V Mars
ABSTRACT Rubber surfaces exposed to concentrated, sliding impacts carry large normal and shearing stresses that can cause damage and the eventual removal of material from the surface. Understanding...
{"title":"Finite Element Modeling and Critical Plane Analysis of a Cut-and-Chip Experiment for Rubber","authors":"C. G. Robertson, J. D. Suter, Mark A. Bauman, R. Stoček, William V Mars","doi":"10.2346/tire.20.190221","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.20.190221","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Rubber surfaces exposed to concentrated, sliding impacts carry large normal and shearing stresses that can cause damage and the eventual removal of material from the surface. Understanding...","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2020-02-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48559681","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT Not only in the automotive sector, but also in the field of aircraft tires, the topic of abrasion is of great importance. The aircraft tire manufacturers provide criteria for the permissib...
摘要不仅在汽车领域，在航空轮胎领域，磨损问题也具有重要意义。航空轮胎制造商提供了允许。。。
{"title":"Experimental Investigation and Simulation of Aircraft Tire Wear","authors":"S. Kahms, M. Wangenheim","doi":"10.2346/tire.20.180201","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.20.180201","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Not only in the automotive sector, but also in the field of aircraft tires, the topic of abrasion is of great importance. The aircraft tire manufacturers provide criteria for the permissib...","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2020-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48340100","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
ABSTRACT The idea of intelligent tires is to develop a tire into an active perception component or a force sensor with an embedded microsensor, such as an accelerometer. A tire rolling kinematics m...
{"title":"Tire Rolling Kinematics Model for an Intelligent Tire Based on an Accelerometer","authors":"Yan Wang, Yintao Wei","doi":"10.2346/tire.20.190211","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.20.190211","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The idea of intelligent tires is to develop a tire into an active perception component or a force sensor with an embedded microsensor, such as an accelerometer. A tire rolling kinematics m...","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2020-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44177203","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Increasing vehicle performance requirements and virtualization of the development process require more understanding of the physical background of tire behavior, especially in transient rolling conditions with combined slip. The focus of this research is the physical description of the transient generation of tire lateral force and aligning torque. Apart from tire force and torque measurements, two further issues were investigated experimentally. Using acceleration measurement on the tire inner liner, it was observed that the contact patch shape of the rolling tire changes nonlinearly with slip angle and becomes asymmetric. Optical measurement outside and inside the tire has clarified that carcass lateral bending features both shear and rotation angle of its cross sections. A physical simulation model was developed that considers the observed effects. The model was qualitatively validated using not only tire force and torque responses but also deformation of the tire carcass. The model-based analysis explained which tire structural parameters are responsible for which criteria of tire performance. Change in the contact patch shape had a low impact on lateral force and aligning torque. Variation of carcass-bending behavior perceptibly influenced aligning torque generation.
{"title":"Physical Understanding of Transient Generation of Tire Lateral Force and Aligning Torque","authors":"P. Sarkisov, G. Prokop, Jan Kubenz, S. Popov","doi":"10.2346/TIRE.19.180192","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/TIRE.19.180192","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Increasing vehicle performance requirements and virtualization of the development process require more understanding of the physical background of tire behavior, especially in transient rolling conditions with combined slip. The focus of this research is the physical description of the transient generation of tire lateral force and aligning torque. Apart from tire force and torque measurements, two further issues were investigated experimentally. Using acceleration measurement on the tire inner liner, it was observed that the contact patch shape of the rolling tire changes nonlinearly with slip angle and becomes asymmetric. Optical measurement outside and inside the tire has clarified that carcass lateral bending features both shear and rotation angle of its cross sections. A physical simulation model was developed that considers the observed effects. The model was qualitatively validated using not only tire force and torque responses but also deformation of the tire carcass. The model-based analysis explained which tire structural parameters are responsible for which criteria of tire performance. Change in the contact patch shape had a low impact on lateral force and aligning torque. Variation of carcass-bending behavior perceptibly influenced aligning torque generation.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45460929","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
C. G. Robertson, R. Stoček, C. Kipscholl, William V Mars
Tires require rubber compounds capable of enduring more than 108 deformation cycles without developing cracks. One strategy for evaluating candidate compounds is to measure the intrinsic strength, which is also known as the fatigue threshold or endurance limit. The intrinsic strength is the residual strength remaining in the material after the strength-enhancing effects of energy dissipation in crack tip fields are removed. If loads stay always below the intrinsic strength (taking proper account of the possibility that the intrinsic strength may degrade with aging), then cracks cannot grow. Using the cutting protocol proposed originally by Lake and Yeoh, as implemented on a commercial intrinsic strength analyzer, the intrinsic strength is determined for a series of carbon black (CB) reinforced blends of natural rubber (NR) and butadiene rubber (BR) typical of tire applications. The intrinsic strength benefits of the blends over the neat NR and BR compounds are only observed after aging at temperatures in the range from 50 to 70 °C, thus providing fresh insights into the widespread durability success of CB-filled NR/BR blends in tire sidewall compounds and commercial truck tire treads.
{"title":"Characterizing the Intrinsic Strength (Fatigue Threshold) of Natural Rubber/Butadiene Rubber Blends","authors":"C. G. Robertson, R. Stoček, C. Kipscholl, William V Mars","doi":"10.2346/TIRE.19.170168","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/TIRE.19.170168","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Tires require rubber compounds capable of enduring more than 108 deformation cycles without developing cracks. One strategy for evaluating candidate compounds is to measure the intrinsic strength, which is also known as the fatigue threshold or endurance limit. The intrinsic strength is the residual strength remaining in the material after the strength-enhancing effects of energy dissipation in crack tip fields are removed. If loads stay always below the intrinsic strength (taking proper account of the possibility that the intrinsic strength may degrade with aging), then cracks cannot grow. Using the cutting protocol proposed originally by Lake and Yeoh, as implemented on a commercial intrinsic strength analyzer, the intrinsic strength is determined for a series of carbon black (CB) reinforced blends of natural rubber (NR) and butadiene rubber (BR) typical of tire applications. The intrinsic strength benefits of the blends over the neat NR and BR compounds are only observed after aging at temperatures in the range from 50 to 70 °C, thus providing fresh insights into the widespread durability success of CB-filled NR/BR blends in tire sidewall compounds and commercial truck tire treads.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46902512","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
O. Shafranska, D. Webster, B. Chisholm, S. McFarlane, J. Tardiff
Soybean oil (SBO) was modified with polystyrene via a radical graft polymerization reaction for use as a processing oil in tire tread compounds. Poly(styrene-butadiene)/polybutadiene rubber compounds with silica and carbon black, containing different processing oils including naphthenic oil (NO), aromatic oil (AO), SBO, and polystyrene-modified SBO (SBO-PS), were formulated, vulcanized, and tested. The curing behavior, mechanical properties, and dynamic properties were investigated. The cure test results showed that all SBO-based rubbers had a shorter scorch time and cure window than the NO- and AO-based rubbers. The tensile tests demonstrated that partial and complete replacement of NO with SBO led to reduced tensile modulus but increased elongation of rubber. For the rubbers compounded with SBO-PS and with a 50/50 mixture of NO/SBO-PS, tensile strength and elongation were higher than for the NO-based rubber. The same tendency was observed when SBO-PS–based rubbers were compared with SBO- and AO-based rubbers. SBO-PS–based rubbers demonstrated better tensile properties than AO-based rubbers and far better properties than SBO-based rubbers. In the tear resistance test and durometer hardness test, SBO-PS contained rubbers that showed similar properties to NO-containing rubber. The dynamic mechanical analysis of SBO-PS–containing rubbers demonstrated that use of this compound in tire treads is expected to improve both rolling resistance and wet traction when compared with an AO-based rubber. The modification of SBO with grafted PS is a promising method of making processing oil, which can replace petroleum-based processing oils with bio-based renewable oils in tire tread compounds while improving their properties.
{"title":"Modified Soybean Oil as a Processing Oil for Styrene-Butadiene Rubber Tire Tread Compounds","authors":"O. Shafranska, D. Webster, B. Chisholm, S. McFarlane, J. Tardiff","doi":"10.2346/TIRE.18.470105","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/TIRE.18.470105","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Soybean oil (SBO) was modified with polystyrene via a radical graft polymerization reaction for use as a processing oil in tire tread compounds. Poly(styrene-butadiene)/polybutadiene rubber compounds with silica and carbon black, containing different processing oils including naphthenic oil (NO), aromatic oil (AO), SBO, and polystyrene-modified SBO (SBO-PS), were formulated, vulcanized, and tested. The curing behavior, mechanical properties, and dynamic properties were investigated. The cure test results showed that all SBO-based rubbers had a shorter scorch time and cure window than the NO- and AO-based rubbers.\u0000 The tensile tests demonstrated that partial and complete replacement of NO with SBO led to reduced tensile modulus but increased elongation of rubber. For the rubbers compounded with SBO-PS and with a 50/50 mixture of NO/SBO-PS, tensile strength and elongation were higher than for the NO-based rubber. The same tendency was observed when SBO-PS–based rubbers were compared with SBO- and AO-based rubbers. SBO-PS–based rubbers demonstrated better tensile properties than AO-based rubbers and far better properties than SBO-based rubbers. In the tear resistance test and durometer hardness test, SBO-PS contained rubbers that showed similar properties to NO-containing rubber.\u0000 The dynamic mechanical analysis of SBO-PS–containing rubbers demonstrated that use of this compound in tire treads is expected to improve both rolling resistance and wet traction when compared with an AO-based rubber. The modification of SBO with grafted PS is a promising method of making processing oil, which can replace petroleum-based processing oils with bio-based renewable oils in tire tread compounds while improving their properties.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46867943","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Marco Furlan, H. Olsson, Mateo Gladstone, G. Mavros
The concept of the relaxation length is often used to describe a tire's transient response. This paper investigates how the transient response changes under different operating conditions. Through the measurement of tire forces and tire deformations during transient maneuvers performed on an indoor flat-belt tire test machine, experimental data were used to calculate various tire stiffnesses and the associated relaxation lengths using a novel method via optimization. With this methodology, the effects of tire load, inflation pressure, speed, and temperature on these stiffnesses and the relaxation length have been identified. The mechanisms behind these effects are discussed with a particular focus on the influence of temperature.
{"title":"Effects of Different Tire Operating Conditions on Transient Lateral Tire Response","authors":"Marco Furlan, H. Olsson, Mateo Gladstone, G. Mavros","doi":"10.2346/tire.19.180194","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.19.180194","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 The concept of the relaxation length is often used to describe a tire's transient response. This paper investigates how the transient response changes under different operating conditions. Through the measurement of tire forces and tire deformations during transient maneuvers performed on an indoor flat-belt tire test machine, experimental data were used to calculate various tire stiffnesses and the associated relaxation lengths using a novel method via optimization.\u0000 With this methodology, the effects of tire load, inflation pressure, speed, and temperature on these stiffnesses and the relaxation length have been identified. The mechanisms behind these effects are discussed with a particular focus on the influence of temperature.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-10-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46486959","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Tire engineers are interested in predicting rolling resistance using tools such as numerical simulation and tests. When a car is driven along, its tires are subjected to repeated deformation, leading to energy dissipation as heat. Each point of a loaded tire is deformed as the tire completes a revolution. Most energy dissipation comes from the cyclic loading of the tire, which causes the rolling resistance in addition to the friction force in the contact patch between the tire and road. Rolling resistance mainly depends on the dissipation of viscoelastic energy of the rubber materials used to manufacture the tires. To obtain a good rolling resistance, the calculation method of the tire finite element model must take into account temperature changes. It is mandatory to calibrate all of the rubber compounds of the tire at different temperatures and strain frequencies. Linear viscoelasticity is used to model the materials properties and is found to be a suitable approach to tackle energy dissipation due to hysteresis for rolling resistance calculation.
{"title":"Rolling Resistance Calculation Procedure Using the Finite Element Method","authors":"Pablo N. Zitelli, Gabriel N. Curtosi, J. Kuster","doi":"10.2346/tire.19.170158","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.19.170158","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Tire engineers are interested in predicting rolling resistance using tools such as numerical simulation and tests. When a car is driven along, its tires are subjected to repeated deformation, leading to energy dissipation as heat. Each point of a loaded tire is deformed as the tire completes a revolution. Most energy dissipation comes from the cyclic loading of the tire, which causes the rolling resistance in addition to the friction force in the contact patch between the tire and road. Rolling resistance mainly depends on the dissipation of viscoelastic energy of the rubber materials used to manufacture the tires. To obtain a good rolling resistance, the calculation method of the tire finite element model must take into account temperature changes. It is mandatory to calibrate all of the rubber compounds of the tire at different temperatures and strain frequencies. Linear viscoelasticity is used to model the materials properties and is found to be a suitable approach to tackle energy dissipation due to hysteresis for rolling resistance calculation.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42910785","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Tire-pavement interaction noise (TPIN) is a dominant noise source for passenger cars and trucks above 25 mph (40 km/h) and above 43 mph (70 km/h), respectively. TPIN is generated due to excitations of the tread pattern and pavement texture. For the same tread pattern and pavement texture at the same speed, TPIN might also be influenced by the tire structure (e.g., the tread rubber hardness and tire size). In the present study, 42 tires with different rubber hardnesses and/or tire sizes were tested at five different speeds (45–65 mph, i.e., 72–105 km/h) on a nonporous asphalt pavement (a section of U.S. Route 460, both eastbound and westbound). An on-board sound intensity system was instrumented on the test vehicle to collect the tire noise data at both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the contact patch. An optical sensor recording the once-per-revolution signal was also installed to monitor the vehicle speed and, more importantly, to provide the data needed to perform the order-tracking analysis to break down the tire noise into two components. These two components are the tread pattern noise and the non–tread pattern noise. It is concluded that for the nonporous asphalt pavement tested, the non–tread pattern noise increases with rubber hardness by ∼0.23 dBA/Shore A. The tire carcass width (section width plus two times section height) influences the central frequencies of the non–tread pattern noise spectrum; the central frequencies decrease as the tire carcass width increases.
{"title":"Effect of Rubber Hardness and Tire Size on Tire-Pavement Interaction Noise","authors":"Tan Li, R. Burdisso, C. Sandu","doi":"10.2346/TIRE.18.460412","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/TIRE.18.460412","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 Tire-pavement interaction noise (TPIN) is a dominant noise source for passenger cars and trucks above 25 mph (40 km/h) and above 43 mph (70 km/h), respectively. TPIN is generated due to excitations of the tread pattern and pavement texture. For the same tread pattern and pavement texture at the same speed, TPIN might also be influenced by the tire structure (e.g., the tread rubber hardness and tire size). In the present study, 42 tires with different rubber hardnesses and/or tire sizes were tested at five different speeds (45–65 mph, i.e., 72–105 km/h) on a nonporous asphalt pavement (a section of U.S. Route 460, both eastbound and westbound). An on-board sound intensity system was instrumented on the test vehicle to collect the tire noise data at both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the contact patch. An optical sensor recording the once-per-revolution signal was also installed to monitor the vehicle speed and, more importantly, to provide the data needed to perform the order-tracking analysis to break down the tire noise into two components. These two components are the tread pattern noise and the non–tread pattern noise. It is concluded that for the nonporous asphalt pavement tested, the non–tread pattern noise increases with rubber hardness by ∼0.23 dBA/Shore A. The tire carcass width (section width plus two times section height) influences the central frequencies of the non–tread pattern noise spectrum; the central frequencies decrease as the tire carcass width increases.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46197853","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The tire establishes the contact between the vehicle and the road. It transmits all forces and moments to the road via its contact patch or footprint and vice versa. The visual inspection of this contact patch using modern optical equipment and image processing techniques is essential for evaluating tire performance. Quantitative image-based analysis can be useful for accurate determination of tire footprint under various operating conditions. Very frequently, methods used in tire footprint segmentation cannot be assessed quantitatively due to the lack of a reference contact area to which the different algorithms could be compared. In this work, we present a novel methodology to characterize the dynamic tire footprint and evaluate the quality of its segmentation from various video sequences in the absence of a ground truth.
{"title":"Objective Tire Footprint Segmentation Assessment from High-Speed Videos","authors":"R. Nava, D. Fehr, F. Petry, T. Tamisier","doi":"10.2346/tire.19.180203","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.19.180203","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000 The tire establishes the contact between the vehicle and the road. It transmits all forces and moments to the road via its contact patch or footprint and vice versa. The visual inspection of this contact patch using modern optical equipment and image processing techniques is essential for evaluating tire performance. Quantitative image-based analysis can be useful for accurate determination of tire footprint under various operating conditions. Very frequently, methods used in tire footprint segmentation cannot be assessed quantitatively due to the lack of a reference contact area to which the different algorithms could be compared. In this work, we present a novel methodology to characterize the dynamic tire footprint and evaluate the quality of its segmentation from various video sequences in the absence of a ground truth.","PeriodicalId":44601,"journal":{"name":"Tire Science and Technology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.8,"publicationDate":"2019-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43329961","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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