Pub Date : 2022-03-03DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2022.2042450
Tangela C. Dockery-Sawyerr
Abstract The law enforcement community has faced great scrutiny in policing tactics and their interactions with marginalized communities and experiences of systemic racism. Moreover, increases in awareness have elicited alarms for reforming and defunding the police. To date, a plethora of literature exists in examining policing, systemic racism, and best practices for reform. However, few studies have explored the perspectives and experiences of racialized practices experienced by African American police officers. This qualitative study explored intradepartmental discrimination, police reform, and alternative policing practices. Findings demonstrate retired police officers’ perceptions of racial bias in policing, how these practices changed over time, and how they may influence decision-making in law enforcement.
{"title":"Policework in a racist context: A qualitative study of retired African American police officers","authors":"Tangela C. Dockery-Sawyerr","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2022.2042450","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2022.2042450","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The law enforcement community has faced great scrutiny in policing tactics and their interactions with marginalized communities and experiences of systemic racism. Moreover, increases in awareness have elicited alarms for reforming and defunding the police. To date, a plethora of literature exists in examining policing, systemic racism, and best practices for reform. However, few studies have explored the perspectives and experiences of racialized practices experienced by African American police officers. This qualitative study explored intradepartmental discrimination, police reform, and alternative policing practices. Findings demonstrate retired police officers’ perceptions of racial bias in policing, how these practices changed over time, and how they may influence decision-making in law enforcement.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"20 1","pages":"1 - 21"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2022-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46293168","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-01Epub Date: 2022-06-15DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2022.2086192
Tuviere Onookome-Okome, Jonah Gorondensky, Eric Rose, Jeffery Sauer, Kristian Lum, Erica E M Moodie
The murder of George Floyd centered Minneapolis, Minnesota, in conversations on racial injustice in the US. We leverage open data from the Minneapolis Police Department to analyze individual, geographic, and temporal patterns in more than 170,000 police stops since 2016. We evaluate person and vehicle searches at the individual level by race using generalized estimating equations with neighborhood clustering, directly addressing neighborhood differences in police activity. Minneapolis exhibits clear patterns of disproportionate policing by race, wherein Black people are searched at higher rates compared to White people. Temporal visualizations indicate that police stops declined following the murder of George Floyd. This analysis provides contemporary evidence on the state of policing for a major metropolitan area in the United States.
{"title":"Characterizing patterns in police stops by race in Minneapolis from 2016 to 2021.","authors":"Tuviere Onookome-Okome, Jonah Gorondensky, Eric Rose, Jeffery Sauer, Kristian Lum, Erica E M Moodie","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2022.2086192","DOIUrl":"10.1080/15377938.2022.2086192","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The murder of George Floyd centered Minneapolis, Minnesota, in conversations on racial injustice in the US. We leverage open data from the Minneapolis Police Department to analyze individual, geographic, and temporal patterns in more than 170,000 police stops since 2016. We evaluate person and vehicle searches at the individual level by race using generalized estimating equations with neighborhood clustering, directly addressing neighborhood differences in police activity. Minneapolis exhibits clear patterns of disproportionate policing by race, wherein Black people are searched at higher rates compared to White people. Temporal visualizations indicate that police stops declined following the murder of George Floyd. This analysis provides contemporary evidence on the state of policing for a major metropolitan area in the United States.</p>","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"20 1","pages":"142-164"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2022-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11219026/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44360599","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-10-02DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1992326
D. Jones-Brown, Jason M. Williams
Abstract This special issue of JECJ presents empirical evidence, both qualitative and quantitative, that despite several decades of attempted police reform, Blacks continue to experience policing as a repressive social institution, whether they are engaged in crime or not. The research reveals continued patterns of racially disparate treatment during traffic stops, in police response to protestors, and in mainstream media representations of protest events. Consistent with this special issue’s theme, the over-policing of Black bodies is shown to extend beyond mere “perception” to a lived experience that is documented via social media and the narratives of individuals, including former police officers, directly affected by repeat and aggressive police encounters. The researchers make several recommendations to change the current empirical reality. Their reform recommendations include: altering current police training to center the needs of the community as identified by a broad spectrum of residents, especially those who have experienced multiple forms of trauma; the reallocation of police funding to community-based crime prevention efforts; banning officers from requesting consent to search during vehicle stops;encouraging greater participation of highly policed populations in local governance and political processes; and, eliminating racial categories in government-sponsored crime statistic reports. By recognizing existing racialized patterns and working to deliberately uncouple Black racial identity from criminal identity, the U.S. can begin to reverse a long-standing culture of violence within policing that disproportionately targets Blacks.
{"title":"Over-policing Black bodies: the need for multidimensional and transformative reforms","authors":"D. Jones-Brown, Jason M. Williams","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1992326","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1992326","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract This special issue of JECJ presents empirical evidence, both qualitative and quantitative, that despite several decades of attempted police reform, Blacks continue to experience policing as a repressive social institution, whether they are engaged in crime or not. The research reveals continued patterns of racially disparate treatment during traffic stops, in police response to protestors, and in mainstream media representations of protest events. Consistent with this special issue’s theme, the over-policing of Black bodies is shown to extend beyond mere “perception” to a lived experience that is documented via social media and the narratives of individuals, including former police officers, directly affected by repeat and aggressive police encounters. The researchers make several recommendations to change the current empirical reality. Their reform recommendations include: altering current police training to center the needs of the community as identified by a broad spectrum of residents, especially those who have experienced multiple forms of trauma; the reallocation of police funding to community-based crime prevention efforts; banning officers from requesting consent to search during vehicle stops;encouraging greater participation of highly policed populations in local governance and political processes; and, eliminating racial categories in government-sponsored crime statistic reports. By recognizing existing racialized patterns and working to deliberately uncouple Black racial identity from criminal identity, the U.S. can begin to reverse a long-standing culture of violence within policing that disproportionately targets Blacks.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"181 - 187"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45854590","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-10-02DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1995562
J. Joseph
• Andre Hill killed at age 47 years on December 22 in Columbus, Ohio (Shot). • Bennie Edwards killed at age 60 years on December 11 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (Shot). • Joshua Feast killed at age 22 years on December 11 in La Marque, Texas (Shot). • Casey Goodson Jr. killed at age 23 years on December 4 in Columbus, Ohio (Shot in the back five times). • Rodney Applewhite killed at age 25 years on November 19 in Albuquerque, New Mexico (Shot). • Sincere Pierce killed at age 18 years on November 13 in Cocoa, Florida (Shot). • Walter Wallace Jr., having a mental crisis, killed at age 27 years on October 26 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Shot). • Jonathan Price killed at age 31 years on October 3 in Wolf City, Texas (Shot). • Kurt Reinhold killed at age 42 years on September 23 in San Clemente, California (Shot). • Dijon Kizzee, mentally ill, killed at age 29 years on August 31 in Los Angeles, California (Shot). • Damian Daniels, mentally suffering veteran, killed at age 30 years on August 22 in San Antonio, Texas (Shot). https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1995562
{"title":"Remember their names","authors":"J. Joseph","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1995562","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1995562","url":null,"abstract":"• Andre Hill killed at age 47 years on December 22 in Columbus, Ohio (Shot). • Bennie Edwards killed at age 60 years on December 11 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (Shot). • Joshua Feast killed at age 22 years on December 11 in La Marque, Texas (Shot). • Casey Goodson Jr. killed at age 23 years on December 4 in Columbus, Ohio (Shot in the back five times). • Rodney Applewhite killed at age 25 years on November 19 in Albuquerque, New Mexico (Shot). • Sincere Pierce killed at age 18 years on November 13 in Cocoa, Florida (Shot). • Walter Wallace Jr., having a mental crisis, killed at age 27 years on October 26 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Shot). • Jonathan Price killed at age 31 years on October 3 in Wolf City, Texas (Shot). • Kurt Reinhold killed at age 42 years on September 23 in San Clemente, California (Shot). • Dijon Kizzee, mentally ill, killed at age 29 years on August 31 in Los Angeles, California (Shot). • Damian Daniels, mentally suffering veteran, killed at age 30 years on August 22 in San Antonio, Texas (Shot). https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1995562","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"188 - 201"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43751194","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-10-02DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1973638
Jennifer E. Cobbina-Dungy
Abstract Proactive policing strategies produce a wide range of harms to African Americans. Research on attitudes towards police show that citizen distrust is more widespread among Blacks than Whites. However, we know less about how gender intersects with race and neighborhood context in determining whether and why Black people fear the police. Here, I build from the insights of previous research by providing a contextual examination of the gendered nature of fear of the police among Black protesters and residents of Ferguson, Missouri and Baltimore, Maryland. Drawing from a larger qualitative study of race, policing, and protests following Michael Brown’s and Freddie Gray’s deaths, I examine 155 Black men’s and women’s accounts of why they do or do not fear the police. Policy implications are discussed, along with concrete recommendations for reducing anti-Black racism in police policy and practice.
{"title":"“I’m afraid of cops:” black protesters’ and residents’ perceptions of policing in the United States","authors":"Jennifer E. Cobbina-Dungy","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1973638","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1973638","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Proactive policing strategies produce a wide range of harms to African Americans. Research on attitudes towards police show that citizen distrust is more widespread among Blacks than Whites. However, we know less about how gender intersects with race and neighborhood context in determining whether and why Black people fear the police. Here, I build from the insights of previous research by providing a contextual examination of the gendered nature of fear of the police among Black protesters and residents of Ferguson, Missouri and Baltimore, Maryland. Drawing from a larger qualitative study of race, policing, and protests following Michael Brown’s and Freddie Gray’s deaths, I examine 155 Black men’s and women’s accounts of why they do or do not fear the police. Policy implications are discussed, along with concrete recommendations for reducing anti-Black racism in police policy and practice.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"244 - 266"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49240284","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-10-02DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1976694
D. Jones-Brown, K. Fuller, Paul Reck, Waverly O. Duck
Abstract Official statistics document that the majority of all crime committed in the U.S. is intra-racial. Only crimes involving victims and offenders of Black racial identity have been assigned an explicitly racialized label. Drawing on work from multiple disciplines, this paper traces the historical origins of racialized crime statistics. It examines how official statistics are manipulated, through racial disproportionality analysis, to mask the amount of crime committed by Whites and to support a view that Black crime is more prevalent and dangerous than other criminal offending. We trace the origin of the term “Black on Black crime” to unsuccessful efforts by Black leaders to protect the Black community from victimization or gain equitable treatment for Black defendants. We argue that the use of the term should be abandoned, in part, because of its current use in public discourse to legitimize police and civilian violence against Blacks. Recommendations for addressing and eliminating the use of this racially charged term in public discourse, policy, and criminal justice practice are provided.
{"title":"Why we should stop using the term “Black-on-Black crime”: an analysis across disciplines","authors":"D. Jones-Brown, K. Fuller, Paul Reck, Waverly O. Duck","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1976694","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1976694","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Official statistics document that the majority of all crime committed in the U.S. is intra-racial. Only crimes involving victims and offenders of Black racial identity have been assigned an explicitly racialized label. Drawing on work from multiple disciplines, this paper traces the historical origins of racialized crime statistics. It examines how official statistics are manipulated, through racial disproportionality analysis, to mask the amount of crime committed by Whites and to support a view that Black crime is more prevalent and dangerous than other criminal offending. We trace the origin of the term “Black on Black crime” to unsuccessful efforts by Black leaders to protect the Black community from victimization or gain equitable treatment for Black defendants. We argue that the use of the term should be abandoned, in part, because of its current use in public discourse to legitimize police and civilian violence against Blacks. Recommendations for addressing and eliminating the use of this racially charged term in public discourse, policy, and criminal justice practice are provided.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"311 - 338"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45284044","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-10-02DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1985029
Anthony G. Vito, George E. Higgins
Abstract This study sought to understand the issue of racial profiling in police requests to consent search the driver. The social conditioning model was applied as a theoretical explanation of the officer based on the citizen’s race, gender, and age. The propensity score matching (PSM) results show that Black drivers (vs. White drivers), Black male drivers (vs. White Male drivers), and young Black male drivers (vs. young white Male drivers) are all more likely to have the officer request to consent search the driver. Similar results were found when considering the reason for the stop is a moving violation. Overall, the results show evidence of racial profiling for Black drivers, Black male drivers, and young Black male drivers.
{"title":"Understanding the role of race, gender and age in request to consent search drivers","authors":"Anthony G. Vito, George E. Higgins","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1985029","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1985029","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract This study sought to understand the issue of racial profiling in police requests to consent search the driver. The social conditioning model was applied as a theoretical explanation of the officer based on the citizen’s race, gender, and age. The propensity score matching (PSM) results show that Black drivers (vs. White drivers), Black male drivers (vs. White Male drivers), and young Black male drivers (vs. young white Male drivers) are all more likely to have the officer request to consent search the driver. Similar results were found when considering the reason for the stop is a moving violation. Overall, the results show evidence of racial profiling for Black drivers, Black male drivers, and young Black male drivers.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"223 - 243"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42320699","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-09-24DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1979159
Delaney Davis
Abstract Controlling police use of unwarranted force is a recurring problem within police agencies, especially those that operate in urban spaces. Black people are disproportionately the recipients of such force. Using my experiences as a Black police officer as the backdrop, I describe my journey from rookie officer to community activist and founder of Black Cops Against Police Brutality (B-CAP). Readers will come to understand the complex world of policing and the difficult road to police reform, from the inside out. Four recommendations are made for police reform: 1) that it be community-centered; 2) that it utilize appreciative inquiry; 3) that it incorporate “true” community policing; and, 4) that trauma-informed policing be supported for all levels of law enforcement.
{"title":"From the field: Why I founded Black Cops Against Police Brutality","authors":"Delaney Davis","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1979159","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1979159","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Controlling police use of unwarranted force is a recurring problem within police agencies, especially those that operate in urban spaces. Black people are disproportionately the recipients of such force. Using my experiences as a Black police officer as the backdrop, I describe my journey from rookie officer to community activist and founder of Black Cops Against Police Brutality (B-CAP). Readers will come to understand the complex world of policing and the difficult road to police reform, from the inside out. Four recommendations are made for police reform: 1) that it be community-centered; 2) that it utilize appreciative inquiry; 3) that it incorporate “true” community policing; and, 4) that trauma-informed policing be supported for all levels of law enforcement.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"202 - 222"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-09-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44840420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-09-21DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1976530
Myrna Cintron
(2021). Invisible no more police violence against black women and women of color, by. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice: Vol. 19, Over-policing Black Bodies:The Need for Multidimensional and Transformative Reforms, Guest Editors: Delores Jones-Brown and Jason Williams, pp. 339-346.
{"title":"Invisible no more police violence against black women and women of color, by","authors":"Myrna Cintron","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1976530","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1976530","url":null,"abstract":"(2021). Invisible no more police violence against black women and women of color, by. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice: Vol. 19, Over-policing Black Bodies:The Need for Multidimensional and Transformative Reforms, Guest Editors: Delores Jones-Brown and Jason Williams, pp. 339-346.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"139 ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138505829","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-09-10DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2021.1972890
Jason M. Williams
Abstract U.S. policing has long been captured within a master narrative of colorblind consensus; however, distinct lived experiences between community groups depict grave disparities in law enforcement experiences and perceptions. Orthodox conceptions of law enforcement ultimately silence marginalized voices disproportionately affected by negative contacts with law enforcement. Centering data in critical theory, this study will present thematic results from semi-interviews gathered in Ferguson, M.O., during a critical ethnographic research project. Themes reveal experiences and perceptions of racialized and violent policing, the unique position of Black officers, and regard for the impact police have on children. Results also help to foreground new epistemic frameworks for contextualizing U.S. policing along racial and geographic contours.
{"title":"U.S. policing as racialized violence and control: a qualitative assessment of black narratives from Ferguson, Missouri","authors":"Jason M. Williams","doi":"10.1080/15377938.2021.1972890","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2021.1972890","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract U.S. policing has long been captured within a master narrative of colorblind consensus; however, distinct lived experiences between community groups depict grave disparities in law enforcement experiences and perceptions. Orthodox conceptions of law enforcement ultimately silence marginalized voices disproportionately affected by negative contacts with law enforcement. Centering data in critical theory, this study will present thematic results from semi-interviews gathered in Ferguson, M.O., during a critical ethnographic research project. Themes reveal experiences and perceptions of racialized and violent policing, the unique position of Black officers, and regard for the impact police have on children. Results also help to foreground new epistemic frameworks for contextualizing U.S. policing along racial and geographic contours.","PeriodicalId":45166,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice","volume":"19 1","pages":"267 - 290"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2021-09-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41757342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：