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Typical patterns of discriminative grandparental investment i.e. high investment provided by the maternal grandmother and low investment provided by the paternal grandfather, are mainly interpreted based on the "paternity uncertainty hypothesis". Accordingly, especially paternal grandfathers are confronted with a double risk of investing in genetically unrelated grandchildren. The present study focuses on the impact of phenotypic resemblance between parents and grandparents on grandparental investment. 94 female and 83 male participants aged 19 to 40 years (x = 27.4; SD = 5.8) were enrolled in the retrospective analysis. An online questionnaire, specifically developed for this study, was used for data collection. In line with predictions, the highest investment, contact frequency and best relationship were found for maternal grandmothers, while paternal grandfathers showed the lowest investment patterns. Phenotypic resemblance between parents and grandfathers enhanced grandfathers' investment significantly, but resemblance had no effect in the case of maternal grandmothers. We conclude that phenotypic similarities can be interpreted as indicators of genetic relatedness and therefore increase grandparental investment among those grandparents, who are confronted with paternity uncertainty, i.e. paternal grandmother and maternal as well as paternal grandfather.

The aim of the present study was to get more knowledge of the nature of athlete boy's secular body changes and to differentiate it from the individual acceleration. A positive secular trend was supposed in athlete youth similar to normal population, but with different extent because of the sport selection. In this study some specific trend characteristics of athlete (basketball player) boys between the 1990^th and 2010^th are analyzed and compared to that of the reference values of the Hungarian National Growth Study I and II (HNGS I - 1980's, Eiben et al. 1991; HNGS II - 2003-2006, Bodzsár & Zsákai 2007). The individual data were collected in Budapest (capital) basketball club boys aged 10-15 years (N = 1376). Body measurements were taken by the first author by the request of coaches and parents. Secular trend was characterized by the changes in some of the measured body parameters by three birth cohorts. The secular changes followed a positive trend, though the traditional decade analyses the variables did not follow a balanced, proportional manner of change. The largest difference in body height occurred in 12-years of age, with a total of +8.27 cm height difference between Cohort III and I and +9.31 kg total difference in body mass at the same age, respectively. Some differences in the tendentious changes occurred between the age groups, characteristic shift of the fat content and the trunk/extremity fat ratio increase toward the younger age, and more excessive increase in BMI were found. Though it could be expected to have favourable body composition in young athletes, nowadays some unfavourable changes in the secular growth trend of body structure have been occurred. One explanation could be the less active leisure time spent. Our results can provide more practical information for coaches to enrich their professional attitude towards a better understanding how to choose and modify training methods during the varied growth and developmental process of young athletes.

Introduction: The prevalence of overweight and obesity among young adults has increased dramatically in recent decades. The survey examined anthropometric indicators of fat tissue amount in the population of adult males and females from Slovenia from 1950 to 2019. Methods: From a large anthropometric database body height, body mass, seven circumferences (C: waist, hip, relaxed and flexed upper arm, forearm, middle thigh, medial calf) and seven skinfold thicknesses (SFT: triceps, biceps, subscapular, iliac crest, supraspinale, front thigh and medial calf) were obtained in different combinations for more than 3400 males and almost 4600 females of age 18 to 29 years, measured in the years between 1950 and 2019. To evaluate the secular trend, data were classified into 10-year periods and compared with ANOVA. Results: Body mass, waist-to-height ratio, waist-to-hip ratio, waist C, relaxed and flexed upper arm C, calf C, Triceps/subscapular ratio, biceps SFT, supraspinale SFT, front thigh SFT, and medial calf SFT increased (p < 0.001) over the last 70 years, however, thigh C decreased (p < 0.001) over the last 30 years. Body mass index and forearm C increased in males and decreased in females. Triceps and subscapular SFT`s increased till 2009 and then decreased in next decade in both sexes. Body fat % increased over the 70-years observed period from 12% to almost 15% in males and from 24% to more than 26% in females. Conclusion: From 1950 to 2009 or even to 2019, large amount of body fat clearly became more prevalent in young adults from Slovenia, which mostly is in line with secular trend in fat tissue in other parts of the world; however, in many measurements this trend slows down or even reverses after 2009 in Slovenia. Slovenian population appears to be leaner compared to other populations.

Sex estimation is a vital first step in developing a biological profile, and is usually metrically or morphoscopically assessed. Geometric morphometric analyses allow re-evaluation of both size and shape variation of skeletal elements, and more meaningful comparisons of sexual dimorphism of different ancestry groups. Additionally, it has shown that some postcranial bones may be more useful for ancestry estimation than previously thought. Geometric morphometric analysis was performed on the radii of 1049 South African individuals (417 females, 578 males) of the country's three largest ancestry groups to assess morphological variation according to sex and ancestry. Three-dimensional landmark datasets of radii were superimposed and scaled to a common centroid size using Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Mean centroid sizes of groups were compared using parametric statistics. Morphological variation was assessed using Discriminant Function Analysis, coupled with leave-one-out cross-validation to assess accuracies of sex and ancestry estimation. Covariation with size, age and year-of-birth were assessed through regression analysis. Male radii were larger and more robust than those of females, as generally observed following secondary sexual development. Black individuals had absolutely larger radii but more gracile morphologies, White individuals had both absolutely and proportionately larger radii, and Mixed individuals had the smallest radii but with similar robust morphologies as White individuals. Similar differences were also detected when variation was assessed according to sex and ancestry combined. Covariation was detected with size, age and year-of-birth. Differences between groups were sufficient to allow 70.9% classification accuracy of sex, 80.6% for ancestry, and 77.2% for sex and ancestry combined. These results show that postcranial bones like the radius show sufficient morphological variation to allow some accuracy in the estimation of sex, though variation between population groups tends to overshadow this variation, even when sex and ancestry are simultaneously considered. The greater ancestry variation allows for relatively good accuracies in estimation, even for highly heterogeneous South African groups that are subject to significant genetic and environmental influences.

Burial 280 is a 31- to 40-year-old male Native American individual who lived in a 10^th to 16^th century coastal foraging society in California. His remains display a large ectocranial elevation on the occipital, measuring 23.3 mm anteroposteriorly, 25.3 mm mediolaterally, and is elevated to 20.1 mm. It is located along the superior nuchal line on the left side of the occipital and represents an extremely rare occipital localization of a particular type of trauma-related osteoma. In our prior study of Burial 280, trauma etiology was not considered; herein, we present evidence for such a cause. Such trauma-related neoplasms are sometimes called ballooned (or giant, depending on size) osteomas. The presence of this tumor appears to have resulted in asymmetrical cranial muscle use and consequent skeletal changes. This case study illustrates that cranial trauma may sometimes induce benign tumor elevations, rather than a depression or pronounced fracture.

Objectives: The precise age estimation is of high importance in bone mineral density (BMD) assessment in children, since the bone structure of a studied child is evaluated by using the age and gender dependent references. In addition, the biological age - the bone age in this case - estimation could help this bone structural evaluation process, since the developmental status of the skeletal system can significantly alter from the theoretical developmental status determined by chronological age in healthy, but early or late maturing children. The aims of the study were (1) to check whether volumetric BMD (vBMD) Z-scores estimated by considering chronological age and biological age differ significantly in children aged between 7-18 years, and (2) in the case of significant inaccuracy of Z-score estimation based on chronological age to construct new vBMD standards adjusted for body developmental status. Subjects and methods: Body structural and densitometry data of 476 healthy children aged between 7 and 18 years were used in the analysis. pQCT measurements were performed at the distal radius using Stratec XCT-2000 equipment (Stratec Inc, Germany). The centile curves of vBMD parameters were estimated by using lmsChartMaker Pro 2.3 software. Ulnar length age was used as biological age in the analysis. Results: The total and 'cortical + subcortical' vBMD changed by age in the studied age interval in both genders, while the trabecular vBMD showed significant change by age only in females. Our results confirmed that when the biological age of a child significantly differs from her/his chronological age, vBMD evaluation should be done by considering her/his biological age. Due to the increase in individual variability of rate and timing of pubertal developmental processes, the sensitivity of vBMD evaluation by considering body developmental status was the lowest in the age between 12 and 16 years in the boys and between 10 and 12 years in the girls. Therefore the suggested vBMD adjustments for biological ages are highly recommended to use at least in children with ages outside these age intervals. Conclusion: If the estimation of any biological age cannot be carried out, vBMD references adjusted for height or other body dimensions should be used in the bone health status estimation in children.

Individuals with excess body mass are usually characterised by a more robust skeleton and greater muscle mass than their leaner counterparts. The aim of this study was to evaluate the skeletal robustness, bone and muscle mass as well as physical fitness of Polish children and adolescents with and without excess body mass. The study group consisted of 3292 individuals (1705 girls and 1587 boys). Body height, mass, triceps skinfold, humerus, femur and bistyloid breadths, as well as thigh and mid-upper arm circumferences, were measured. BMI, Frame Index, bone and muscle mass were calculated. Results of handgrip strength, standing broad jump, sit-and-reach and shuttle-run tests were obtained. Participants were categorised as normal-weight or with overweight/obesity according to Cole's cut-offs. Statistical differences were calculated using two-way ANOVA (independent variables: age category, BMI group; dependent variable: analysed characteristic). Individuals in the overweight/obese category had larger absolute bone and muscle mass, as well as values of associated measurements and results of handgrip strength than their leaner counterparts. The normal-weight individuals had a greater relative bone, muscle mass and achieved better results in most fitness tests, including relative dynamometric force. In conclusion, individuals in the overweight/obese category were characterised by an increased absolute mass of bone and muscle tissue, as well as greater values of associated measurements, in comparison to their leaner counterparts. However, those advantages did not translate into better physical fitness. It may be associated with the fact that in proportion to the total body weight, bone and muscle mass were greater among participants in the normal-weight category.

This study aimed to compare the nasofrontal region in metopic and non-metopic cranial series and to assess whether the persistent metopic suture is related to a specific morphology of this part of the cranium. For the purpose of the study, a total of 159 dry crania (control series n = 90 and metopic one n = 69) of contemporary adult males were scanned with a laser scanner. Digital morphometry was accomplished by recording the three-dimensional coordinates of eleven landmarks, 3 bilateral and 5 in the mid-sagittal plane, characterizing the nasofrontal region. Between these landmarks, 43 linear measurements were calculated as Euclidian distances and 25 triangles were constructed. The angles, areas and heights of these triangles were also computed. The results show that the metopic crania have a distinctive nasofrontal morphology as the significant differences are not in the forehead height, but mainly in its configuration and in the nasal bones dimensions. The metopic crania have significantly flattened glabella, broad interorbital distance and wider, shorter and less prominent nasal bones compared to the non-metopic ones.

Purpose: Socioeconomic differences in dental maturation can be used to examine the impact of environmental factors on dental maturation. The purpose of this study is to assess socioeconomic differences in dental maturation of the seven permanent mandibular teeth (I1-M2). Methods: A total of 2114 panoramic radiographs of Portuguese children, adolescents and young adults were studied. The sample was divided into a high socioeconomic status (SES) (n = 925), and a low SES group (n = 1189). Ages ranged between 5 and 26 years. Demirjian's stages were used to assess the maturation of the seven mandibular teeth on the left side. Median-age of attainment of each stage and each tooth was calculated and compared between groups using binary logistic regression. Results: Low SES girls showed a consistent advancement in dental maturation across the entire dentition. Low SES boys, however, showed more often a delayed maturation relative to their high SES counterparts, but this pattern was not consistent and a clear socioeconomic difference seems to be absent in boys. Conclusions: While this study was not able to further explore the causes of the dental advancement in girls, it is hypothesized that it might be related to a higher prevalence of overweight/obesity, and possibly caries, in low SES girls, compared to the SES difference in prevalence in boys.

Objective: To study growth pattern of weight and length/height in male and female children with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA). Methods: A total of 348 patients (boys: 182, girls: 166) aged 1 to 18 years, diagnosed as cases of JIA and categorized into oligoarthritis, polyarthritis and systemic arthritis were enrolled in this mixed-longitudinal study from Pediatric Rheumatology Clinic of Advanced Pediatrics Centre, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India. Weight and length/height measurements were recorded at approximately 6 monthly intervals in Growth Laboratory/Growth Clinic of the department over a period of 13 years. Mean (SD) for weight and length/height were computed. Unpaired Student's t-test was employed to ascertain gender differences. Analysis of variance and post-hoc Bonferroni tests were applied to evaluate inter-group differences. Results: A regular increase in weight and length/height of all children representing three types of JIA was noticed throughout the study period. Maximum growth impairment was seen in patients with systemic JIA. Children with oligoarthritis were least affected. Boys with oligoarthritis, measured lighter and shorter than girls. Gender differences for children with polyarthritis demonstrated inconsistent trends. Boys with systemic JIA generally measured lighter than girls. Boys with systemic JIA measured taller than girls upto 4 years and thereafter they remained shorter till 14 years. Conclusions: As compared to normal children (2000 CDC), impaired weight and length/height growth attainments were recorded in oligoarthritis, polyarthritis and systemic JIA patients throughout the study span. However, the magnitude of this impairment appears to be related to the subtype of JIA.