Pub Date : 2025-01-01Epub Date: 2024-06-20DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2024.2365893
Xiaxia Yang, Kam Wing Chan
This Research Note employs age data to assess whether China's internal migrants have become more settled since 2010. The aim is to answer the crucial question of whether recent hukou reform initiatives have achieved their goals of improving migrant settlement. We extend a method from existing research that examines two key aspects of settlement - family togetherness and long-term stay of migrants - through analyzing age profiles of migrant stock. Specifically, by scrutinizing age data from the 2010 and 2020 censuses, we evaluate whether the child and elderly dependents of migrants are more engaged in migration and whether migrants growing old can better remain in the destinations. The results show that from 2010 to 2020, the age distribution of migrants became slightly more even across all age groups, yet it was still concentrated in young adults - the overall shape remained largely unchanged. This indicates a small improvement in settlement, which is unsatisfactory given the various hukou reform initiatives aimed at substantially increasing settlement opportunities in the last 10 years. Much greater efforts on hukou reform and support for migrants are needed. Furthermore, our research highlights the utility of age data in assessing the actual extent of migrant settlement, as opposed to the exclusive focus on settlement intentions, which are common in existing studies.
{"title":"Have China's internal migrants been more settled since 2010? A contribution based on migrants' age profiles.","authors":"Xiaxia Yang, Kam Wing Chan","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2024.2365893","DOIUrl":"10.1080/15387216.2024.2365893","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This Research Note employs age data to assess whether China's internal migrants have become more settled since 2010. The aim is to answer the crucial question of whether recent <i>hukou</i> reform initiatives have achieved their goals of improving migrant settlement. We extend a method from existing research that examines two key aspects of settlement - family togetherness and long-term stay of migrants - through analyzing age profiles of migrant stock. Specifically, by scrutinizing age data from the 2010 and 2020 censuses, we evaluate whether the child and elderly dependents of migrants are more engaged in migration and whether migrants growing old can better remain in the destinations. The results show that from 2010 to 2020, the age distribution of migrants became slightly more even across all age groups, yet it was still concentrated in young adults - the overall shape remained largely unchanged. This indicates a small improvement in settlement, which is unsatisfactory given the various <i>hukou</i> reform initiatives aimed at substantially increasing settlement opportunities in the last 10 years. Much greater efforts on <i>hukou</i> reform and support for migrants are needed. Furthermore, our research highlights the utility of age data in assessing the actual extent of migrant settlement, as opposed to the exclusive focus on settlement intentions, which are common in existing studies.</p>","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"66 4-5","pages":"497-506"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12311996/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144776589","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-07DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2301396
Markus Sattler
{"title":"Rethinking peripheral geographies of innovation: towards an ordinary periphery approach","authors":"Markus Sattler","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2301396","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2301396","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"24 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2024-01-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139448672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-12-30DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2300070
Zhe Zhang, Zhiding Hu, Joe Williams
{"title":"International rivers as national borders: the functional complexity of border river governance with a case study of the Khorgos river","authors":"Zhe Zhang, Zhiding Hu, Joe Williams","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2300070","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2300070","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":" 93","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2023-12-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139139659","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-12-07DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2292222
Alexander L. Q. Chen, Federico Jensen
{"title":"Logistical fixes and China’s spatial division of logistics integration - in search of economic rebalancing?","authors":"Alexander L. Q. Chen, Federico Jensen","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2292222","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2292222","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2023-12-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138590076","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-28DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2282701
Cheng Chen, Ryan Rylee, C. C. Fan
{"title":"Living together or apart? International migrants and family coresidence in Yiwu, China","authors":"Cheng Chen, Ryan Rylee, C. C. Fan","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2282701","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2282701","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"69 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2023-11-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139215479","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-17DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2266816
Juliet Lu, Michael B. Dwyer
ABSTRACT China’s Opium Replacement Policy (ORP) is one of the country’s earliest cross-border development interventions in the upper Mekong region. A massive state subsidy program for “alternative” development in the northern parts of Myanmar and Laos, the ORP helped finance a wave of Chinese agribusiness investments abroad since the mid-2000s, causing significant social and ecological transformation. Yet key details about the program remain opaque. In this article, we contribute to a growing literature on the rising economic power of China’s “peripheral centers,” borderland prefectures whose role in foreign affairs has increased significantly as the country’s borders become more porous. We review state motives for establishing the ORP and use public records about the program’s activities in Myanmar and Laos to interrogate the vertical politics that structure and complicate the ORP’s implementation. The program’s public records are characterized by a mix of transparency and opacity which we analyse to show that the ORP’s increasing transparency since around 2010 has moved away from regulating impacts abroad and instead toward securing and distributing benefits for borderland business (and their interlinked political) interests in China. As borderland authorities play a growing role in China’s foreign trade, we show that the vertical politics that increasingly shape the regulatory environment have allowed the ORP to proliferate in size and influence as state oversight of its activities abroad has waned.
{"title":"Peripheral centers: vertical politics and the geography of Chinese cross-border opium replacement in Southeast Asia’s “New Golden Triangle”","authors":"Juliet Lu, Michael B. Dwyer","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2266816","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2266816","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT China’s Opium Replacement Policy (ORP) is one of the country’s earliest cross-border development interventions in the upper Mekong region. A massive state subsidy program for “alternative” development in the northern parts of Myanmar and Laos, the ORP helped finance a wave of Chinese agribusiness investments abroad since the mid-2000s, causing significant social and ecological transformation. Yet key details about the program remain opaque. In this article, we contribute to a growing literature on the rising economic power of China’s “peripheral centers,” borderland prefectures whose role in foreign affairs has increased significantly as the country’s borders become more porous. We review state motives for establishing the ORP and use public records about the program’s activities in Myanmar and Laos to interrogate the vertical politics that structure and complicate the ORP’s implementation. The program’s public records are characterized by a mix of transparency and opacity which we analyse to show that the ORP’s increasing transparency since around 2010 has moved away from regulating impacts abroad and instead toward securing and distributing benefits for borderland business (and their interlinked political) interests in China. As borderland authorities play a growing role in China’s foreign trade, we show that the vertical politics that increasingly shape the regulatory environment have allowed the ORP to proliferate in size and influence as state oversight of its activities abroad has waned.","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"39 1","pages":"811 - 841"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2023-11-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139265187","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-14DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2282028
Xiaodong Huang, Godfrey Yeung, Tingzhu Li, Debin Du
ABSTRACTWe propose an analytical framework to examine how various dimensions of proximity between home and host countries could account for the trajectories and specificities of cross-border acquisitions of technology assets (CATAs) conducted by acquirer firms in latecomer economies. As Chinese firms have been increasingly using CATAs as a mean to catch up with their counterparts in advanced economies, we referred to their acquisition records to illustrate the applicability of the proposed framework. Based on a compiled dataset of the number of CATA transactions from 2001 to 2018, this paper examines the effects of various dimensions of proximity on the spatio-temporal patterns of Chinese CATAs using negative binomial regression models. Our findings demonstrate that the difference in governance between China and host countries (institutional proximity), the size of overseas Chinese population in host countries (social proximity), and the value of import from host countries (economic proximity) have significant effects on the propensity of Chinese firms to engage in CATAs. Physical distance and cultural gap between China and host countries, however, have no significant impact on CATAs. Further examination of the results reveals that Chinese firms tend to acquire target firms outright in culturally distant host countries to reduce the risk of their overseas acquisition in CATAs. In addition, we also found that there is a dynamic relationship between different dimensions of proximity and CATAs: from the relative importance of economic proximity between 2001 and 2012 to the rising influence of social and institutional proximity between 2013 and 2018 on CATAs.KEYWORDS: Technological acquisitionscross-border M&AproximityInnovationlatecomer economyChinese firm Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1. The BVD-Zephyr M&A database defines a transaction as “expected to be completed” if it is in normal progression and has not updated its status in two years.2. We followed the convention by classifying enterprises based in Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions as host regions.Additional informationFundingThe first author was supported by the China Scholarship Council [202106140100]. This work was supported by the Major Projects of National Social Science Foundation of China [19ZDA087].
{"title":"Proximity and cross-border acquisitions of technology assets by firms in latecomer economies: a study of Chinese firms, 2001-2018","authors":"Xiaodong Huang, Godfrey Yeung, Tingzhu Li, Debin Du","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2282028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2282028","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACTWe propose an analytical framework to examine how various dimensions of proximity between home and host countries could account for the trajectories and specificities of cross-border acquisitions of technology assets (CATAs) conducted by acquirer firms in latecomer economies. As Chinese firms have been increasingly using CATAs as a mean to catch up with their counterparts in advanced economies, we referred to their acquisition records to illustrate the applicability of the proposed framework. Based on a compiled dataset of the number of CATA transactions from 2001 to 2018, this paper examines the effects of various dimensions of proximity on the spatio-temporal patterns of Chinese CATAs using negative binomial regression models. Our findings demonstrate that the difference in governance between China and host countries (institutional proximity), the size of overseas Chinese population in host countries (social proximity), and the value of import from host countries (economic proximity) have significant effects on the propensity of Chinese firms to engage in CATAs. Physical distance and cultural gap between China and host countries, however, have no significant impact on CATAs. Further examination of the results reveals that Chinese firms tend to acquire target firms outright in culturally distant host countries to reduce the risk of their overseas acquisition in CATAs. In addition, we also found that there is a dynamic relationship between different dimensions of proximity and CATAs: from the relative importance of economic proximity between 2001 and 2012 to the rising influence of social and institutional proximity between 2013 and 2018 on CATAs.KEYWORDS: Technological acquisitionscross-border M&AproximityInnovationlatecomer economyChinese firm Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1. The BVD-Zephyr M&A database defines a transaction as “expected to be completed” if it is in normal progression and has not updated its status in two years.2. We followed the convention by classifying enterprises based in Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions as host regions.Additional informationFundingThe first author was supported by the China Scholarship Council [202106140100]. This work was supported by the Major Projects of National Social Science Foundation of China [19ZDA087].","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"13 8","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134957589","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-12DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2279545
Xiaxia Yang, Kam Wing Chan
Chinese institutional arrangements, particularly the hukou system, hinder long-term settlement of internal migrants by limiting their access to social benefits. This article proposes a new method for assessing migrant settlement: the use of age data to investigate the link between migrant “flow” and “stock”. We contend that migrants’ inability to settle mainly derives from two sources: the difficulties in maintaining migrant family togetherness, and the impediments to long-term residence of migrants themselves. Age-related indices were developed to compare China’s internal migration with other countries’ internal and international migration. The results indicate a “China difference” in migration age patterns – child and elderly dependents of migrant workers are discouraged from migrating, while migrants growing old tend to return to the origins than to remain in the destinations. Consequently, family togetherness and long-term residence in the destinations are often unachievable for migrants. Our analyses highlight China’s unique migrant labor regime, where temporary migrant workers are continuously “recycled” to keep destinations’ workforce “forever young”, reducing production costs of Chinese goods in global markets. Methodologically, our age-based “mobile-to-settled” transition framework and “settlement rate” of migrants in the transition are of value in examining migrant settlement chances more generally, applicable to internal and international migration beyond China.
{"title":"Forever young: China’s migration regime and age patterns","authors":"Xiaxia Yang, Kam Wing Chan","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2279545","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2279545","url":null,"abstract":"Chinese institutional arrangements, particularly the hukou system, hinder long-term settlement of internal migrants by limiting their access to social benefits. This article proposes a new method for assessing migrant settlement: the use of age data to investigate the link between migrant “flow” and “stock”. We contend that migrants’ inability to settle mainly derives from two sources: the difficulties in maintaining migrant family togetherness, and the impediments to long-term residence of migrants themselves. Age-related indices were developed to compare China’s internal migration with other countries’ internal and international migration. The results indicate a “China difference” in migration age patterns – child and elderly dependents of migrant workers are discouraged from migrating, while migrants growing old tend to return to the origins than to remain in the destinations. Consequently, family togetherness and long-term residence in the destinations are often unachievable for migrants. Our analyses highlight China’s unique migrant labor regime, where temporary migrant workers are continuously “recycled” to keep destinations’ workforce “forever young”, reducing production costs of Chinese goods in global markets. Methodologically, our age-based “mobile-to-settled” transition framework and “settlement rate” of migrants in the transition are of value in examining migrant settlement chances more generally, applicable to internal and international migration beyond China.","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"1 5","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135037641","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-11-09DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2279549
Xiaofeng Liu, Mia M. Bennett
ABSTRACTWhile the roles of actors such as the state and state-owned enterprises within “Global China” elicit significant scholarly attention, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are relatively less critiqued. These members of Chinese civil society are playing an increasingly important role in the environmental governance of the country’s overseas activities. By analyzing firsthand observations and interviews and secondhand materials produced by NGOs and the Chinese government, this article traces how and why Chinese NGOs seek to “green” China’s engagement beyond its borders. First, we identify four types of Chinese NGOs with a variety of state- and non-state founders. Then, we examine how NGOs’ objectives and state policies jointly shape the way they “go out.” As both knowledge and political actors, Chinese NGOs accumulate, produce, and disseminate knowledge related to Global China’s environmental issues, across domestic and international spaces. Though the specific strategies pursued by NGOs depend on their type, overall, their alignment with Chinese state policies and interests constitutes a crucial condition for their success. This research offers new insights into Chinese non-state actors’ expanding participation in international activities. As the country’s civil organizations endeavor to exert influence both within and beyond China’s borders, the effects of their interventions on global governance may grow.KEYWORDS: Global Chinanon-government organizations (NGO)non-state actorsenvironmental governanceknowledgepolitics Disclosure statementThe research received ethics approvals from the Human Research Ethics Committee, the University of Hong Kong (EA2006016 and EA210244).
{"title":"Going out and going green: NGOs in the environmental governance of Global China","authors":"Xiaofeng Liu, Mia M. Bennett","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2279549","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2279549","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACTWhile the roles of actors such as the state and state-owned enterprises within “Global China” elicit significant scholarly attention, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are relatively less critiqued. These members of Chinese civil society are playing an increasingly important role in the environmental governance of the country’s overseas activities. By analyzing firsthand observations and interviews and secondhand materials produced by NGOs and the Chinese government, this article traces how and why Chinese NGOs seek to “green” China’s engagement beyond its borders. First, we identify four types of Chinese NGOs with a variety of state- and non-state founders. Then, we examine how NGOs’ objectives and state policies jointly shape the way they “go out.” As both knowledge and political actors, Chinese NGOs accumulate, produce, and disseminate knowledge related to Global China’s environmental issues, across domestic and international spaces. Though the specific strategies pursued by NGOs depend on their type, overall, their alignment with Chinese state policies and interests constitutes a crucial condition for their success. This research offers new insights into Chinese non-state actors’ expanding participation in international activities. As the country’s civil organizations endeavor to exert influence both within and beyond China’s borders, the effects of their interventions on global governance may grow.KEYWORDS: Global Chinanon-government organizations (NGO)non-state actorsenvironmental governanceknowledgepolitics Disclosure statementThe research received ethics approvals from the Human Research Ethics Committee, the University of Hong Kong (EA2006016 and EA210244).","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":" 33","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-11-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135291511","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-10-19DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2023.2267093
Jakhongir Babadjanov, Martin Petrick
In 2018, Uzbekistan initiated a clustering policy in the national cotton sector. Based on case studies, this paper investigates the recent changes in cotton production under the emerging clusters. Our findings show a mismatch between the meaning of clusters in the industrial policy literature and practice in Uzbekistan. The supervision of cotton growing passed from the state to private enterprises (clusters). This transformation has perpetuated monopsony conditions under which farmers have no alternative marketing channels. The input markets have been disconnected from state agencies, however farms lack access to private input markets, since clusters supervise the input use. Our analyses show that forced and child labor has receded. In general, the cluster reform hardly took into account the principles of industrial policy. For example, the establishment of clusters among farmers widely lacked transparency. Instead of a hastened establishment of clusters in large scales, an institutional environment that enables bottom-up initiatives should be promoted. Overall, from the farmers’ perspective, recent reform steps led to moderate changes at best, while clusters started to play a dominant role in the cotton sector.
{"title":"Uzbekistan’s cotton clusters in the context of the industrial policy debate","authors":"Jakhongir Babadjanov, Martin Petrick","doi":"10.1080/15387216.2023.2267093","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2023.2267093","url":null,"abstract":"In 2018, Uzbekistan initiated a clustering policy in the national cotton sector. Based on case studies, this paper investigates the recent changes in cotton production under the emerging clusters. Our findings show a mismatch between the meaning of clusters in the industrial policy literature and practice in Uzbekistan. The supervision of cotton growing passed from the state to private enterprises (clusters). This transformation has perpetuated monopsony conditions under which farmers have no alternative marketing channels. The input markets have been disconnected from state agencies, however farms lack access to private input markets, since clusters supervise the input use. Our analyses show that forced and child labor has receded. In general, the cluster reform hardly took into account the principles of industrial policy. For example, the establishment of clusters among farmers widely lacked transparency. Instead of a hastened establishment of clusters in large scales, an institutional environment that enables bottom-up initiatives should be promoted. Overall, from the farmers’ perspective, recent reform steps led to moderate changes at best, while clusters started to play a dominant role in the cotton sector.","PeriodicalId":47508,"journal":{"name":"Eurasian Geography and Economics","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135728951","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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