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Do languages spoken in multilingual communities converge? A case study of reflexivity marking in Mano and Kpelle 多语言社区的语言趋同吗?马诺和克佩勒反身性标记案例研究
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-05-01 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2022-0111
Maria Khachaturyan, George Moroz, Pe Mamy
This paper explores variation in the patterns of reflexivity marking in the Mano language and possible influence from the Kpelle language by using an experimental design with a picture questionnaire. While Kpelle does not have a morphological distinction between reflexive and basic pronouns, the Mano variety spoken by Mano-dominant individuals does possess such a distinction in 3sg. In contrast, the Mano variety spoken by Kpelle-dominant individuals shows a pattern borrowing from Kpelle into Mano, whereby the basic pronoun is used for both coreferential and disjoint readings. In a bilingual village, however, despite daily usage of both languages, almost all speakers from our sample manifest a uniform pattern that aligns closely with the monolingual Mano pattern of reflexivity marking. Therefore, the intensity of contact alone does not predict the amount of influence of Kpelle on Mano. Contrary to predictions by Labov (2010. Principles of linguistic change. Volume 3, Cognitive and cultural factors. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell: 5), we conclude that the languages spoken in a multilingual speech community do not necessarily converge and that a balanced multilingual community may provide enough input to acquire monolingual-like competence, at least according to the specific parameter under investigation. In the long run, however, convergence between Mano and Kpelle could indeed be taking place, with Mano losing its reflexivity contrasts, having already lost the contrast in 3pl.
本文通过图片问卷的实验设计,探讨了马诺语中反身性标记模式的变化以及可能来自克佩勒语的影响。克佩尔语在反身代词和基本代词之间没有形态上的区别,而马诺语为主的人所说的马诺语在 3sg 中却有这种区别。与此相反,克佩尔语为主的人说的马诺语则表现出一种从克佩尔语借用到马诺语的模式,即基本代词既用于同位语读法,也用于非同位语读法。然而,在一个双语村里,尽管日常使用两种语言,我们的样本中几乎所有说话者都表现出一种统一的模式,与单语马诺语的反身性标记模式非常一致。因此,仅凭接触强度并不能预测克佩勒语对马诺语的影响程度。与拉博夫(2010.语言变化的原则。第 3 卷,认知和文化因素。霍博肯:Wiley-Blackwell:5),我们得出的结论是,在一个多语言言语社区中,所使用的语言并不一定会趋同,一个平衡的多语言社区可以提供足够的输入来获得类似于单语的能力,至少根据所研究的具体参数是如此。然而,从长远来看,马诺语和克佩勒语之间的趋同可能确实正在发生,马诺语将失去其反身性对比,而克佩勒语已经失去了 3pl 的对比。
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引用次数: 0
Geographic structure of Chinese dialects: a computational dialectometric approach 汉语方言的地理结构:方言计量学计算方法
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-04-23 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2021-0138
He Huang, Jack Grieve, Lei Jiao, Zhuo Cai
Dialect classification is a long-standing issue in Chinese dialectology. Although various theories of Chinese dialect regions have been proposed, most have been limited by similar methodological issues, especially due to their reliance on the subjective analysis of dialect maps both individually and in the aggregate, as well as their focus on phonology over syntax and vocabulary. Consequently, we know relatively little about the geolinguistic underpinnings of Chinese dialect variation. Following a review of previous research in this area, this article presents a theory of Chinese dialect regions based on the first large-scale quantitative analysis of the data from the Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects, which was collected between 2000 and 2008, providing the most up-to-date picture of the full Chinese dialect landscape. We identify and map a hierarchy of 10 major Chinese dialect regions, challenging traditional accounts. In addition, we propose a new theory of Chinese dialect formation to account for our findings.
方言分类是汉语方言学中一个长期存在的问题。尽管已经提出了各种汉语方言区理论,但大多数理论都受到类似方法论问题的限制,特别是由于它们依赖于对方言图的单个和总体的主观分析,以及它们对语音的关注超过了对句法和词汇的关注。因此,我们对中国方言变异的地理语言学基础知之甚少。本文回顾了以往在这一领域的研究,首次对《中国方言地图集》(Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects)的数据进行了大规模的定量分析,在此基础上提出了中国方言区域理论。我们确定并绘制了中国 10 大方言区的层次结构图,对传统说法提出了挑战。此外,我们还提出了一种新的中国方言形成理论来解释我们的发现。
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引用次数: 0
From location to conjunction, disjunction, partition, exemplification and association: Hebrew bein constructions 从位置到连词、析词、分词、例证和联想:希伯来语 bein 结构
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-04-22 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2022-0115
Ruti Bardenstein, Mira Ariel
Analyzing the diachrony of Hebrew bein, originally a spatial preposition ‘within/among’, this article traces several grammaticization clines associated with bein’s gradual evolution into a rich variety of functions within various constructions. While its early function is purely locative, bein later participates in an array of constructions and sub-constructions, where its syntactic status, its semantic meanings and functions, as well as its discourse role, have shifted considerably. Bein may thus be part of a conjunctive or a disjunctive construction, but it may also be part of an ‘in any case’ adverbial, and later an ‘anyway’ discourse marker. It conveys different locative construals (‘within’, ‘among’ and ‘between’), but also various abstract symmetric relations, such as ‘difference’, ‘dispute’ and ‘separation’. Some bein constructions partition a set, focusing on a subset of it, while in other cases bein serves as an ‘all-purpose’ preposition. Nevertheless, our goal is to show how each grammatical, semantic and discoursal phase is well motivated, given the previous phase. Based on written historical corpora, from Biblical to contemporary Hebrew, we provide a step-by-step diachronic development from earlier to later bein functions.
希伯来语中的 bein 最初是一个空间介词 "internal/among",本文分析了这个介词的异时性,并追溯了与 bein 逐渐演变为各种结构中的丰富功能相关的几条语法化线索。虽然 bein 早期的功能是纯粹的定位,但它后来参与了一系列结构和子结构,在这些结构和子结构中,它的句法地位、语义和功能以及话语角色都发生了很大的变化。因此,Bein 可能是连接结构或非连接结构的一部分,也可能是 "无论如何 "副词的一部分,后来还可能是 "无论如何 "话语标记的一部分。它传达了不同的定位构式("之内"、"之间 "和 "之间"),也传达了各种抽象的对称关系,如 "差异"、"争议 "和 "分离"。有些 bein 结构会分割一个集合,侧重于其中的一个子集,而在其他情况下,bein 则是一个 "万能 "介词。尽管如此,我们的目标还是要说明在前一个阶段的基础上,每个语法、语义和话语阶段是如何被充分调动起来的。基于从《圣经》到现代希伯来语的书面历史语料,我们提供了从早期到晚期 bein 功能的逐步异时发展过程。
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引用次数: 0
What’s hidden below definiteness and genitive: on indefinite partitive articles in Romance 定语和属格下面隐藏着什么:论罗曼语中的不定代词
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-04-18 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2022-0059
Francesco Pinzin
In French, Italian, and other Romance languages indefinite nominal phrases can be introduced by what appears to be the conflation of a genitive preposition and a definite article, the so-called “indefinite partitive articles” (e.g., Fr. Je cuisine de la soupe depuis deux jours. ‘I’ve been cooking soup for two days’). This is rather unexpected, since these nominal phrases are neither definite nor in a syntactic position in which we expect to find a genitive preposition. This led part of the literature to consider them as built by lexical items synchronically distinct from the genitive preposition/definite article but homophonous with them. This contribution shows how a constituent-based approach to the lexicon-syntax interface as nanosyntax, paired with a specific take on the sequence of syntactic functions, can capture their apparently conflicting distribution without stipulating multiple homophonous lexical items. The key factor in this proposal is a revised analysis of the Romance lexical item (LI) for (i) definite articles – linked to a constituent containing not only features of definiteness but also lower indefinite features and higher nominative/accusative case features – and (ii) the genitive preposition DE – linked to a constituent containing not only genitive features but also lower nominative/accusative features. Holding these LIs crosslinguistically stable, the variation attested in this domain is modeled as depending on the amount of functional structure lexicalized by the nominal root in the different languages.
在法语、意大利语和其他罗曼语中,不定名词性短语可以通过似乎是属格介词和定语的混合来引入,即所谓的 "不定偏正结构冠词"(例如,Fr. Je cuisine de la soupe depuis deux jours.我煮了两天汤')。这是相当出乎意料的,因为这些名词性短语既不是定语,也不在我们期望找到属格介词的句法位置上。因此,部分文献认为它们是由与属格介词/定语同步但同音的词项构成的。这篇论文展示了如何通过基于成分的纳米合成语法(nanosyntax)方法来处理词汇-语法界面,并配以对句法功能序列的特定理解,从而在不规定多个同音词项的情况下捕捉到它们表面上相互冲突的分布。这一建议的关键因素是对罗曼语词项(LI)的修订分析:(i) 定语--与一个不仅包含定语特征,而且包含较低的不定冠词特征和较高的名词性/指称性特征的成分相联系;(ii) 属格介词 DE--与一个不仅包含属格特征,而且包含较低的名词性/指称性特征的成分相联系。如果这些词性在跨语言上保持稳定,那么在这一领域中出现的变化将取决于不同语言中由名根词性化的功能结构的数量。
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引用次数: 0
Diachronic evolution of the subordinator kak in Russian 俄语从句 "kak "的异时演变
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-04-15 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2021-0213
N. Serdobolskaya, I. Kobozeva
In Russian, the subordinator kak ‘how’ is both a manner question word and an eventive complementizer. The Russian linguistic tradition explains the colexification of the two functions in terms of a semantic shift from manner as characteristic of a situation to event description as a whole. Alternatively, a grammaticalization scenario from manner complements to event/propositional complements has been suggested: manner complements originally have a propositional frame, which is foregrounded concurrently with the loss of the manner meaning, giving rise to both eventive and propositional interpretations. This article is aimed at testing both hypotheses. We study several large Old Russian manuscripts, starting from the first available documents of the 11th century, and show that at the earliest documented period Old Russian kako/kakъ could be used in all types of complement clauses. It could introduce eventive, propositional, manner and irrealis purposive-like complements. Accordingly, the evolution of the subordinator kak in complementation involves a narrowing of its functional domain. We classify Old Russian texts based on the period and trace the gradual loss of particular functions during the centuries. Thus, we show that the Russian data supports the second grammaticalization scenario.
在俄语中,从句 kak "如何 "既是一个方式疑问词,又是一个事件补语。俄语语言学传统从语义的角度解释了这两种功能的复合,即从作为情境特征的方式到作为整体的事件描述的语义转变。另外,还有人提出了从方式补语到事件/命题补语的语法化设想:方式补语原本有一个命题框架,在方式意义消失的同时,命题框架被突出出来,从而产生了事件和命题两种解释。本文旨在检验这两种假设。我们研究了从 11 世纪第一批可用文献开始的几份大型古俄语手稿,结果表明,在有文献记载的最早时期,古俄语 kako/kakъ 可用于所有类型的补语从句。它可以引入事件补语、命题补语、方式补语和无目的补语。因此,从句 kak 在补语中的演变涉及其功能域的缩小。我们根据时期对古俄语文本进行了分类,并追溯了几个世纪以来特定功能的逐渐丧失。因此,我们证明俄语数据支持第二种语法化方案。
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引用次数: 0
Spanish lower and upper bounded change of state verbs: focusing on transitive experiencer object verbs 西班牙语下限和上限状态变化动词:侧重于及物经验宾语动词
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-04-05 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2021-0143
Paola Fritz-Huechante, Elisabeth Verhoeven
Transitive causative change of state (TCoS) verbs elicit scalar readings, distinguishing them between: upper-bounded verbs (e.g., dry), denoting a culminating change of state, and lower-bounded verbs (e.g., wrinkle), denoting a change from a zero to a non-zero value (or from one value to another) regarding the property described by the semantic core of the verb. In their eventive reading, transitive experiencer object (TEO) verbs (e.g., calm down, delight) also denote causative eventualities able to yield scalar inferences. This study investigates whether TEO verbs are also associated with a minimum or maximum standard degree, proposing a similar subdivision of TEO verbs into lower-bounded items (delight) and upper-bounded items (calm down). In a forced-choice selection experiment we tested the impact of the standard degree (bound) of the semantic core of Spanish TEO verbs on the availability of lower-bounded or upper-bounded readings comparing them to TCoS verbs. Results revealed that the factor bound was significant to the extent that both lower-bounded TEO and TCoS predicates yielded the response compatible with a lower-bounded reading significantly more often than predicates that possess a maximum degree, supporting the distinction between lower and upper bounded items. Further, a significant effect of verb type was also observed, differentiating a change of state on the mental (TEO) versus the physical (TCoS) levels.
及物动词 "状态的因果变化"(TCoS)引起标量解读,将它们区分为:上限值动词(如 "干"),表示状态的最终变化;下限值动词(如 "皱"),表示动词语义核心所描述的属性从零值到非零值(或从一个值到另一个值)的变化。在事件性解读中,及物动词经验宾语(TEO)(如冷静下来、高兴)也表示能够产生标量推理的因果性事件。本研究探讨了 TEO 动词是否也与最小或最大标准程度相关联,并提出将 TEO 动词细分为类似的下限项目(高兴)和上限项目(冷静)。在一个强制选择实验中,我们测试了西班牙语 TEO 动词语义核心的标准程度(界限)对低界限或高界限读音的影响,并将它们与 TCoS 动词进行了比较。结果表明,在下限 TEO 和上限 TCoS 谓语中,下限谓语比上限谓语更经常地产生与下限读法相匹配的反应,这说明了下限和上限谓语之间的区别。此外,动词类型对心理(TEO)和物理(TCoS)层面的状态变化也有明显的影响。
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引用次数: 0
Introduction: the development of manner expressions into complementizers or quotatives 导言:将方式表达发展为补语或引语
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-03-25 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2024-0019
C. Gentens, Kasper Boye
Through intriguing paths of change, manner expressions may give rise to both quotatives and a diverse range of complementizers. These paths of change are still far from mapped or fully understood, but after years of relative ignorance, they have recently been the subject of increased interest. In this paper, we introduce a special issue the aim of which is to add to the growing knowledge and understanding of the development of manner expressions into complementizers or quotatives. Centering our discussion on Saxena’s diachronic hypothesis from 1995, we first briefly go through a number of central studies of the issue. Subsequently, we summarize the main findings of the contributions to the special issue: (i) additional evidence of the development of manner expressions into complementizers or quotatives; (ii) an emphasis on the variation found in examples of this development; (iii) a number of developmental paths that do not conform to Saxena’s hypothesis (but also a couple that might be compatible with it). In the final part of the paper, we introduce each of the individual contributions to the special issue.
通过耐人寻味的变化路径,方式表达既可以产生引语,也可以产生多种多样的补语。这些变化路径还远未被绘制或完全理解,但在经历了多年的相对无知之后,它们最近已成为人们越来越关注的主题。在本文中,我们将介绍一个特刊,旨在增加人们对方式表达发展为补语或商语的认识和理解。我们以 Saxena 1995 年提出的非同步假说为讨论中心,首先简要回顾了有关该问题的一些核心研究。随后,我们总结了特刊投稿的主要发现:(i) 方式表达发展为补语或引语的更多证据;(ii) 强调在这种发展的例子中发现的变异;(iii) 一些不符合 Saxena 假设的发展路径(但也有一些可能与之相符)。在本文的最后一部分,我们将介绍为特刊撰写的每一篇文章。
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引用次数: 0
An alternative view of the English alternative embedded passive 英语嵌入式被动语法的另一种观点
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-03-25 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2023-0170
Daniel Duncan
The English alternative embedded passive (AEP), or “needs washed” construction, is a noncanonical morphosyntactic feature found in some American and British Englishes. It involves a matrix verb surfacing immediately before a participle. Previous research has described this construction as only licit with matrix need, want, and like; however, isolated examples of the AEP with additional matrix verbs have surfaced. These rarely attested instances raise questions regarding the basic description of the construction and how matrix verb availability is constrained, as well as whether the AEP is truly the same feature across AmE and BrE varieties. This paper utilizes a large-scale grammaticality judgement survey to obtain as exhaustive a set of AEP matrix verbs as possible. Results show that far more verbs can be used in the AEP than previously attested. Acceptance is constrained by lexical semantics, verbal syntax, and verb productivity. This alternative view of the AEP as a more generalized phenomenon nevertheless shows a strong link between AmE and BrE varieties, as the constraints are nearly identical across the nations. The findings illustrate how attention to rarely attested or non-attested data can inform morphosyntactic and dialectological research.
英语中的另类嵌入式被动(AEP),或称 "needs washed "结构,是某些美式英语和英式英语中的一种非规范形态句法特征。它涉及一个矩阵动词紧接在分词之前出现。以往的研究表明,这种结构只允许与基质动词 need、want 和 like 搭配使用;然而,也有个别 AEP 与其他基质动词搭配使用的例子出现。这些极少见的例子提出了有关该结构的基本描述、矩阵动词的可用性是如何受到限制的问题,以及 AEP 在 AmE 和 BrE 两个变体中是否真的具有相同的特征。本文利用大规模语法判断调查来获得尽可能详尽的 AEP 矩阵动词集。结果表明,AEP 中可使用的动词比以前证实的要多得多。接受程度受到词汇语义、动词语法和动词生产率的限制。尽管如此,这种将 AEP 视为更普遍现象的另一种观点还是显示出 AmE 和 BrE 变体之间的紧密联系,因为各国的限制条件几乎完全相同。研究结果表明,关注很少有据可查或无据可查的数据可以为形态句法和方言学研究提供信息。
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引用次数: 0
The diachrony of the Basque marker bait-: from a manner expression to subordinator 巴斯克语标记词 "bait-"的异时性:从方式表达到从句
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-03-20 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2021-0198
Dorota Krajewska
This article analyzes the diachrony of the Basque marker bait-, which is a verbal prefix in subordinate clauses, but also has other functions: for example, it appears in independent clauses and indefinite pronouns. In subordinate clauses, it is used in two ways. First, it co-occurs with clause-initial conjunctions in reason, manner or result clauses or with pronouns in relative clauses. Secondly, it is used on its own, in relative, reason, result and complement clauses (with a limited group of verbs, such as emotive factive predicates or predicates of happening). The article combines evidence from a corpus study (6822 examples from 16th- to 20th-century texts) and internal reconstruction to (1) determine if and in what way the subordinator bait- and the affirmative bai ‘yes’ can be diachronically related, and (2) try to establish diachronic relations between the functions of bait-. It is proposed that the missing link between the subordinator and the affirmative particle might be a manner expression bai which had anaphoric functions. The marker bait- emerged as a reanalyzed form of the manner expression, which then gradually and through various pathways spread to different types of subordinate clauses and was reanalyzed as a subordinator.
本文分析了巴斯克语标记词 "bait-"的异时性。"bait-"是从句中的动词前缀,但也有其他功能:例如,它出现在独立分句和不定代词中。在从句中,它有两种用法。首先,它在原因、方式或结果从句中与句首连词共现,或在相对从句中与代词共现。其次,它在相对从句、原因从句、结果从句和补语从句中单独使用(与有限的一组动词一起使用,如情感事实谓语或发生谓语)。文章将语料库研究(从 16 世纪到 20 世纪的 6822 个例子)和内部重建相结合,以(1)确定从句 bait- 和肯定句 bai "是的 "是否以及以何种方式具有异时关系,(2)尝试建立 bait- 功能之间的异时关系。有学者提出,从句和肯定语气词之间缺少的联系可能是具有拟喻功能的方式表达 bai。标记词 bait- 作为方式表达的一种再分析形式出现,然后通过各种途径逐渐扩散到不同类型的从句中,并被重新分析为从句。
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引用次数: 0
Constructional sources of durational shortening in discourse markers 话语标记中时态缩短的结构来源
IF 1.1 2区 文学 Q1 Arts and Humanities Pub Date : 2024-03-20 DOI: 10.1515/ling-2021-0096
Esther L. Brown, Javier Rivas
Using naturally occurring data from Spanish from Madrid, this study is the first to analyze durations of the Spanish word decir ‘to say, to tell’ both as a verb with prepositional meaning and as part of the reformulating construction [es decir] ‘that is to say’ (N = 388). We show that, although it is neither highly grammaticalized nor frequent, [es decir] undergoes phonological reduction to a significantly greater degree than the more frequent lexical source decir ‘to say’. Results of linear mixed-effects models predicting target duration suggest these durational differences cannot be explained due to conditioning factors of the target context controlled in this analysis (speech rate of the target word context, predictability of following words, number of phones, distance from pause). They do not appear to stem from an accumulation in memory of patterns of likelihood of use in those conditioning environments. We propose that [es decir] is stored as a lexical unit that contains as part of the lexical representation shorter word durations relative to the lexical form decir and that this durational shortening is part of the [reformulator] construction.
本研究利用马德里西班牙语的自然发生数据,首次分析了西班牙语单词 decir "说,告诉 "作为具有介词意义的动词和作为重构结构[es decir]"就是说"(N = 388)一部分的持续时间。我们的研究表明,虽然 [es decir] 的语法化程度不高,使用频率也不高,但它的语音缩减程度明显高于使用频率更高的词源 decir "说"。预测目标持续时间的线性混合效应模型的结果表明,这些持续时间上的差异无法用本分析中控制的目标语境的条件因素(目标词语境的语速、后续词的可预测性、电话数量、与停顿的距离)来解释。这些差异似乎并非源于在这些条件环境中使用可能性模式在记忆中的积累。我们认为,[es decir]是作为一个词性单位储存的,其词性表征的一部分是相对于词性形式 decir 的较短单词持续时间,这种持续时间的缩短是[reformulator]结构的一部分。
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引用次数: 0
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Linguistics
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