Learning and Instruction最新文献_第7页

Effects of heterogeneity simulations on beliefs 异质性模拟对信念的影响

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-10-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102258

Franziska Baier-Mosch , Charlotte Dignath , Mareike Kunter

Background

Teaching strategies that consider the heterogeneity of students’ prior knowledge, such as differentiated instruction, are an important feature of teaching quality, but are still rarely implemented by teachers in schools. Simulations could be an approach to provide pre-service teachers with the experience of heterogeneity and thereby positively influence their beliefs about the importance of teaching that responds to the heterogeneity of students.

Aims

We investigated the impact of a text-based heterogeneity simulation on pre-service teachers' beliefs about the importance of teaching that addresses students’ heterogeneity.

Samples

We conducted two experiments, with n = 156 pre-service teachers participating in the first study and n = 152 pre-service teachers participating in the second study (replication).

Methods

In the heterogeneity simulation condition, pre-service teachers experienced what it is like to be part of a group of heterogeneous learners with different levels of prior knowledge. This condition was compared with a condition in which pre-service teachers read a scientific text on heterogeneity and with a control condition in which pre-service teachers did not deal with the topic of heterogeneity.

Results

The participants' beliefs about the importance of responding to school students' heterogeneity increased significantly in the first study in the heterogeneity simulation condition. This increase narrowly missed statistical significance in the second study. In both studies, pre-service teachers' beliefs about the importance of responding to school students’ heterogeneity did not increase in the heterogeneity text condition and the control condition.

Conclusions

Future research should further investigate the potential of heterogeneity simulations.

考虑学生先验知识异质性的教学策略，如差别化教学，是教学质量的一个重要特征，但在学校中很少被教师实施。模拟可以为职前教师提供异质性的经验，从而积极影响他们对应对学生异质性的教学重要性的信念。目的研究基于文本的异质性模拟对职前教师关于解决学生异质性的教学重要性信念的影响。样本我们进行了两项实验，n = 156名职前教师参与第一项研究，n = 152名职前教师参与第二项研究（重复）。方法在异质性模拟条件下，让职前教师亲身体验具有不同先验知识水平的异质性学习者。将该条件与职前教师阅读关于异质性的科学文本的条件和职前教师不处理异质性主题的对照条件进行比较。结果在异质性模拟条件下，被试对回应学生异质性重要性的信念显著增加。这一增加在第二项研究中几乎没有统计学意义。在两项研究中，职前教师对回应学生异质性重要性的信念在异质性文本条件和对照条件下均未增加。结论未来的研究应进一步探讨异质性模拟的潜力。

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引用次数: 0

General introduction to the special issue on resilience in learning 关于学习弹性的专题简介

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-10-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102254

Sietske van Viersen , Maria Psyridou , Minna Torppa

In this introduction to the special issue ‘Resilience in Learning: In Search of Protective Factors and Compensatory Mechanisms’ we provide an overview of the seven articles featured in this special issue and address important themes in this relatively new area of research. These seven articles each have their own foci and form an introduction into the emerging field of academic resilience in the context of education. They cover a theoretical paper, scoping review, several original empirical studies, and an in-depth reflection on the emerging evidence for protective factors and compensatory mechanisms in the context of learning. As this special issue should only be considered as a starting point, we end with suggesting future directions to advance the field.

在这篇特刊“学习中的弹性：寻找保护因素和补偿机制”的引言中，我们概述了本期特刊的七篇文章，并讨论了这一相对较新的研究领域的重要主题。这七篇文章都有自己的重点，形成了对教育背景下学术弹性这一新兴领域的介绍。他们涵盖了一篇理论论文，范围审查，一些原始的实证研究，以及对学习背景下保护因素和补偿机制的新证据的深入反思。由于这一特殊问题只应被视为一个起点，我们以建议该领域未来的发展方向作为结束。

引用次数: 0

Spatially-enhanced science instruction in elementary school: Impacts on teachers’ and students’ spatial skills 空间强化的小学科学教学：对师生空间技能的影响

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102248

Kristin Michod Gagnier , Steven J. Holochwost , Ligia Tomazin , Shoug Alsayegh , Negar Fatahi , Ben Gold , Kelly R. Fisher

Background

Developing spatial skills shows promise for enhancing teaching and learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). While many initiatives have focused on dedicated spatial skills training, this approach is often impractical for public schools. To address this, we developed a spatially-enhanced (SE) science curriculum integrating five spatial strategies—gesture, spatial comparison, spatial language, sketching, and explicit instruction in visualizations—into teachers’ pedagogy, instructional materials, and student activities throughout the academic year.

Aims

We examined whether using this SE curriculum in science instruction improved teachers' and students' spatial skills. We hypothesized that embedding spatial thinking practices into daily science instruction would prompt teachers—and, in turn, their students—to reason about spatial relationships and properties, leading to improved spatial thinking by year's end.

Sample

Participants were 35 third-grade teachers and 572 students (ages 8–9) from a large, urban mid-Atlantic district.

Methods

Teachers and students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) Business-As-Usual (BAU), (2) NGSS-Aligned (NGSS), and (3) Spatially-Enhanced-NGSS (SE-NGSS). All completed pre- and post-assessments of spatial skills at the beginning and end of the academic year.

Conclusions

Spatially enhancing science instruction appears to be a feasible and promising approach to strengthening spatial thinking in education, particularly for teachers, whose skills improved significantly with the SE-NGSS curriculum. The impact on students was less pronounced, likely because they are one step removed from the locus of intervention and because outcomes are shaped by curriculum implementation and teacher and school-level factors.

培养空间技能有望加强科学、技术、工程和数学（STEM）领域的教与学。虽然许多举措都侧重于专门的空间技能培训，但这种方法对公立学校来说往往是不切实际的。为了解决这个问题，我们开发了一个空间增强（SE）科学课程，将五种空间策略——手势、空间比较、空间语言、素描和可视化的明确指导——整合到教师的教学法、教学材料和整个学年的学生活动中。目的研究在科学教学中使用SE课程是否能提高教师和学生的空间技能。我们假设，将空间思维练习嵌入到日常科学教学中，将促使教师——以及他们的学生——对空间关系和属性进行推理，从而在年底前提高空间思维。样本参与者是来自大西洋中部一个大型城市地区的35名三年级教师和572名学生（8-9岁）。方法将教师和学生随机分配到以下三种情况中的一种：(1)照常工作（BAU）， (2) NGSS对齐（NGSS）和(3)空间增强NGSS （SE-NGSS）。所有学生都在学年开始和结束时完成了空间技能的前后评估。结论空间强化科学教学似乎是一种可行且有前景的方法，特别是对于教师，他们的技能在SE-NGSS课程中得到了显着提高。对学生的影响不太明显，可能是因为他们离干预地点只有一步之遥，也可能是因为结果是由课程实施、教师和学校层面的因素决定的。

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引用次数: 0

Discussion of the articles in the special issue ‘Resilience in learning: In search of protective factors and compensatory mechanisms’ 《学习中的弹性：寻找保护因素和补偿机制》特刊文章讨论

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-10-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102251

Rauno Parrila

引用次数: 0

Civic Education Outcomes After Emergency Lockdowns: International Evidence from the COVID-19 Pandemic 紧急封锁后的公民教育成果：来自COVID-19大流行的国际证据

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-10-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102243

Alec I. Kennedy, Ana María Mejía-Rodríguez, Rolf Strietholt

Background:

In early 2020, nations around the globe responded to the rapidly developing COVID-19 pandemic by implementing emergency containment measures to slow the spread of the virus. Educational systems were widely impacted as they made the difficult decision to close schools affecting over 1.5 billion students globally.

Aims:

This study aims to characterize the relationship between COVID-19 lockdown stringency and changes in several secondary student civic education outcomes.

Sample:

We use data on more than 100,000 grade 8 students from 15 educational systems that participated across multiple cycles of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS).

Methods:

We utilize multiple regression models with country- and cycle-fixed effects to estimate the relationship between the duration and stringency of COVID-19 containment measures and changes in grade 8 student civic education outcomes.

Results:

We find that longer school closures and greater lockdown stringency were associated with greater declines in average civic knowledge and trust in civic institutions. They were also associated with increases (or smaller decreases) in intentions to protest or expectations to participate in politics. Less consistent evidence was found regarding the relationship with expected participation in elections.

Conclusions:

The findings provide valuable insights into the associations between lockdown measures and early secondary student civic education outcomes, highly relevant for understanding how the pandemic and related policies may have influenced the future citizens of the world.

背景：2020年初，全球各国通过实施紧急遏制措施来应对快速发展的COVID-19大流行，以减缓该病毒的传播。教育系统受到了广泛影响，因为他们做出了关闭影响全球15亿多学生的学校的艰难决定。目的：本研究旨在描述COVID-19封锁严格程度与几种中学生公民教育成果变化之间的关系。样本：我们使用了来自15个教育系统的10万多名8年级学生的数据，这些学生参与了国际公民和公民教育研究（ICCS）的多个周期。方法：利用具有国家固定效应和周期固定效应的多元回归模型，估计疫情防控措施持续时间和严格程度与八年级学生公民教育成果变化的关系。结果：我们发现，更长的学校关闭时间和更严格的封锁与公民平均知识和对公民机构的信任的更大下降有关。它们还与抗议意图的增加（或较小的减少）或参与政治的期望有关。关于预期参与选举的关系，发现的证据不太一致。结论：研究结果为了解封锁措施与中学生早期公民教育成果之间的关系提供了有价值的见解，这对于了解大流行和相关政策如何影响未来的世界公民具有高度相关性。

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引用次数: 0

Decoding the success of collaboration in computational thinking 破解计算思维中协作的成功

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-09-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102232

Stella Xin Yin , Dion Hoe-Lian Goh , Choon Lang Quek

Background

Computational Thinking (CT) is a key component of information literacy and future employment skills. While pair programming (PP) has been recognized as an effective collaborative strategy for CT education, the motivational mechanism behind remains underexplored.

Aims

We aim to examine how self-efficacy, engagement, and collaboration preference influence CT skills and learning satisfaction. Further, we compare the relationships among these motivational factors between PP and individual learning contexts.

Sample

Participants were 79 fifth-grade elementary school students. Forty of participants were randomly paired and assigned to the PP group and 39 were assigned to the individual learning group.

Methods

We implemented a four-week intervention. Students in the PP group collaborated on CT tasks, while students in the individual learning group completed the tasks individually.

Results

Experiment results demonstrated that PP significantly improved students' self-efficacy compared to individual learning. In both groups, students with high self-efficacy beliefs were more engaged in CT learning, consequently leading to better performance in CT tests and higher learning satisfaction. Notably, the positive effects of self-efficacy and collaboration preference on cognitive engagement were stronger in the PP group. Moreover, positive PP experiences reinforced students’ preference for future collaborative learning.

Conclusions

These insights contribute to motivation research in CT education and provide practical implications for designing more engaging and effective PP activities in developing CT skills.

计算思维（CT）是信息素养和未来就业技能的关键组成部分。虽然结对编程（PP）已被认为是CT教育中一种有效的合作策略，但其背后的动机机制仍未得到充分探讨。目的研究自我效能感、敬业度和协作偏好对CT技能和学习满意度的影响。进一步，我们比较了这些动机因素在PP和个体学习情境之间的关系。样本参与者为79名小学五年级学生。40名参与者被随机配对并分配到PP组，39名被分配到个人学习组。方法进行为期四周的干预。PP组的学生合作完成CT任务，而个人学习组的学生单独完成任务。结果实验结果表明，与个体学习相比，PP显著提高了学生的自我效能感。在两组中，具有高自我效能感信念的学生对CT学习的投入程度更高，因此在CT测试中表现更好，学习满意度也更高。值得注意的是，自我效能感和合作偏好对认知投入的正向影响在PP组中更强。此外，积极的PP体验强化了学生对未来合作学习的偏好。结论这些见解有助于CT教育的动机研究，并为设计更有吸引力和更有效的PP活动来培养CT技能提供了实践意义。

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引用次数: 0

Bilingual word learning: Recognizing novel words in context 双语词汇学习：在语境中识别新单词

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-09-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102230

Justin Lauro , Pâmela Freitas Pereira Toassi , Ana Beatriz Arêas da Luz Fontes

Background

This study examined the effects of semantic and language variability on novel word learning in bilinguals. We investigated whether varied semantic contexts improve novel word learning in both the dominant and non-dominant language, particularly for novel words across a range of cross-language orthographic overlap.

Methods

Two within-subjects experiments were conducted with English-Spanish (n = 48) and Brazilian Portuguese-English bilinguals (n = 68). Participants studied rare words in repeated or varied semantic contexts across different language conditions (dominant-only, non-dominant-only, or both languages). Reading times for sentences during the study session, accuracy and response times in a semantic relatedness task, measured word learning.

Results

Sentence reading times decreased with each presentation, especially in repeated contexts and when words were presented in the dominant language. Cross-language orthographic overlap significantly moderated reading times of the whole sentence when novel target words were studied in both languages (translation equivalents). The post-test semantic relatedness task presented more complex findings. English-Spanish bilinguals benefited more from words studied in varied semantic contexts, while Brazilian Portuguese-English bilinguals showed an advantage for repeated contexts, likely due to differing task completion strategies and language use patterns between the groups.

Conclusions

While some findings aligned with the Context Variability Hypothesis, other findings revealed more nuanced effects of semantic and language variability. Findings were interpreted within an instance-based theoretical framework of word learning. Language variability across study encounters may provide additional retrieval cues, facilitating novel word learning in bilinguals. However, the effects are moderated by task demands and specific language-pairs.

本研究探讨了语义和语言变异对双语学习者新单词学习的影响。我们研究了不同的语义上下文是否能在优势语言和非优势语言中促进新单词的学习，特别是跨语言正字法重叠的新单词。方法采用英语-西班牙语（n = 48）和巴西葡萄牙语-英语双语者（n = 68）进行两项受试者内实验。参与者在不同的语言条件下（仅占主导地位、仅占非主导地位或两种语言），在重复或不同的语义语境中研究罕见词。在学习过程中阅读句子的时间，语义关联任务的准确性和反应时间，测量单词学习。结果句子的阅读时间随着每次呈现而减少，尤其是在重复的语境和以优势语言呈现单词时。跨语言正字法重叠显著调节了在两种语言中研究新目标词（翻译等效词）时整个句子的阅读时间。后测语义关联任务的结果更为复杂。英语-西班牙双语者从不同语义语境中学习的单词中获益更多，而巴西-葡萄牙-英语双语者在重复语境中表现出优势，这可能是由于两组之间不同的任务完成策略和语言使用模式。虽然一些研究结果与上下文变异性假说相一致，但其他研究结果揭示了语义和语言变异性的微妙影响。研究结果在基于实例的单词学习理论框架内进行了解释。学习过程中的语言差异可能提供额外的检索线索，促进双语者学习新单词。然而，这种影响被任务要求和特定语言对所缓和。

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引用次数: 0

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-09-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102228

Rebecca Schneider , Sebastian Weirich , Poldi Kuhl , Stefan Schipolowski , Petra Stanat

Background

Restrictions on schooling related to the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in learning deficits in primary and secondary education, but may have affected different groups of students in different ways.

Aim

We focus on the especially vulnerable group of students with special educational needs (SEN) in the domain of learning (SEN-L) and investigated changes in their verbal achievements by comparing different student cohorts. We also analyzed whether characteristics of the learning situation during the pandemic differed between students with and without SEN and whether these characteristics were associated with students’ verbal achievements.

Sample

Analyses are based on representative data from large-scale assessments in Germany with achievement scores available for student cohorts prior to the COVID-19 pandemic and for student cohorts affected by the pandemic-related restrictions (Grade 4: 2016/2021, N_{non-SEN/SEN-L} > 23.300/1.500; Grade 9: 2015/2022, N_{non-SEN/SEN-L} > 29.000/1.300).

Results

Significant negative trends in student cohorts' average achievement emerged in reading, listening, and orthography for SEN-L students taught at regular schools and their peers without SEN. Negative cohort trends in achievement were also found for SEN-L students at special needs schools, but these were not statistically significant in all domains. Multilevel regressions revealed significant relations between students’ learning conditions during the pandemic and their verbal achievement in 2021/2022, but did not differ between students without SEN and students with SEN-L.

Conclusion

The findings indicate negative trends in verbal achievements for students with SEN-L at regular schools and at special needs schools. These are likely in part due to the pandemic-related restrictions in schooling.

与COVID-19大流行相关的学校限制导致中小学教育的学习缺陷，但可能以不同的方式影响不同群体的学生。我们关注在学习领域有特殊教育需要（SEN）的学生群体（SEN- l），通过比较不同的学生群体，调查他们在语言成绩方面的变化。我们还分析了大流行期间学习情况的特征在有特殊学习障碍和没有特殊学习障碍的学生之间是否存在差异，以及这些特征是否与学生的语言成绩有关。样本分析基于德国大规模评估的代表性数据，这些数据包括COVID-19大流行之前的学生群体和受大流行相关限制影响的学生群体的成绩分数（4级：2016/2021，non- sen /SEN-L > 23.300/1.500； 9级：2015/2022，non- sen /SEN-L > 29.000/1.300）。结果普通学校SEN-L学生和非SEN-L学生在阅读、听力和正字法上的平均成绩呈显著负向趋势，特殊需要学校SEN-L学生的成绩也呈负向趋势，但在所有领域均不具有统计学意义。多水平回归显示，疫情期间学生的学习状况与2021/2022学年的语言成绩之间存在显著关系，但在非SEN学生和SEN- l学生之间没有差异。结论普通学校和特殊需要学校SEN-L学生的语言成绩呈下降趋势。这在一定程度上可能是由于与大流行有关的学校限制。

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引用次数: 0

Take a deep breath or screem it all out: Emotion regulation strategies of young students 深吸一口气，还是把一切都屏蔽掉：年轻学生的情绪调节策略

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-09-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102213

Bernadette van Berk , Charlotte Dignath

Background

Emotion regulation (ER) is a critical component of effective self-regulated learning (SRL), which has been increasingly researched in the last decades. However, there is still insufficient empirical research on emotions and emotion regulation in early years of schooling.

Aims

This study aims to identify ER strategies of young learners, triangulate different ER measures, and investigate variables that explain variation in ER.

Sample

82 primary school students aged from 7 to 12 years (M = 10.16 (SD = 1.24); 51 % female) and their parents participated in the study.

Method

To gain deep insights into young students' ER in achievement situations, a multimodal approach was applied. In a semi-structured interview, students were asked to report their approach when facing negative emotions, low motivation or low concentration during learning. In addition, students' think-aloud during a problem-solving task, their ER self-report and their parents’ rating about ER was assessed.

Results

Results highlight the different nature of the four different ER assessment methods that measure different aspects of ER. Moreover, findings suggest that elementary school students use a range of ER strategies depending on the contexts. Furthermore, control and value beliefs regarding ER strategy use were associated with ER measured with the interview and reported in self-ratings.

Conclusion

This study offers valuable insights into how young learners regulate their negative emotions during learning, highlighting the importance of understanding factors influencing ER in young learners and why some students may not engage in ER strategies during learning. By emphasizing the need for multi-method approaches and intentional use of specific ER assessment methods beyond traditional questionnaires, the study advances the field, offering a more nuanced understanding of young learners’ ER processes within the SRL context.

降级调节（ER）是有效自我调节学习（SRL）的一个重要组成部分，近几十年来得到了越来越多的研究。然而，关于早期学龄期情绪与情绪调节的实证研究仍然不足。目的本研究旨在确定青少年学习者的ER策略，对不同的ER测量方法进行三角测量，并探讨解释ER差异的变量。样本：7 ~ 12岁小学生82名(M = 10.16 (SD = 1.24)；（51%为女性）和他们的父母参与了这项研究。方法采用多模式研究方法，深入了解青年学生在成就情境下的ER。在一个半结构化的访谈中，学生们被要求报告他们在学习中面对消极情绪、低动力或低注意力时的做法。此外，研究人员还评估了学生在解决问题时的大声思考、他们的ER自我报告和父母对ER的评价。结果强调了四种不同的ER评估方法的不同性质，这些方法测量了ER的不同方面。此外，研究结果表明，小学生根据不同的情境使用了一系列的ER策略。此外，关于ER策略使用的控制和价值信念与访谈测量的ER相关，并在自我评定中报告。结论本研究对青少年学习者在学习过程中如何调节消极情绪提供了有价值的见解，强调了理解影响青少年学习者消极情绪策略的因素的重要性，以及为什么有些学生在学习过程中可能不采用消极情绪策略。通过强调多方法方法的必要性，以及在传统问卷调查之外有意使用特定的ER评估方法，该研究推进了该领域的发展，为SRL背景下年轻学习者的ER过程提供了更细致入微的理解。

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引用次数: 0

Effects of retrieval practice on retention and application of complex educational concepts 检索练习对复杂教育概念记忆和应用的影响

IF 4.9 1区教育学 Q1 EDUCATION & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Learning and Instruction

Pub Date : 2025-09-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102219

Daniel Corral , Shana K. Carpenter

Aims

Retrieval practice is effective for enhancing memory, but its effects on transfer are less clear. The current study compared the effects of retrieval versus non-retrieval-based strategies on retention and transfer of research methods concepts.

Sample and methods

In Experiment 1 (N = 309), participants completed one short-answer factual quiz and received correct-answer feedback (retrieval), one multiple-choice quiz with correct-answer feedback (recognition), restudied the original learning materials (restudy), or studied the short-answer quiz questions and answers (quiz study). Eight minutes later, participants received a final test over repeated questions (multiple-choice versions of the practice questions), and application questions (never-before-seen multiple-choice questions requiring application of the concepts). Experiments 2 (N = 158) and 3 (N = 255) involved the same retrieval, restudy, and quiz study conditions, but involved three rounds of retrieval practice and a one-week delayed final test.

Results

Retrieval enhanced performance compared to restudy, but not compared to quiz study or recognition, on repeated but not on application final test questions (Experiment 1). Retrieval produced better performance than restudy and quiz study on repeated final test questions (Experiment 2) and application final test questions (Experiment 3). Conditional analyses on application question performance given accurate repeated question performance revealed an advantage of retrieval, indicating that retrieval enhances the recognition component of transfer.

Conclusion

Retrieval practice benefits both retention and transfer of complex concepts. These benefits appear more likely to occur when a sufficient amount of retrieval practice is provided and learning is measured over a delay of several days.

目的检索练习对增强记忆是有效的，但对迁移的影响尚不清楚。本研究比较了检索策略与非检索策略对研究方法概念的保留和迁移的影响。在实验1 （N = 309）中，被试分别完成一次简答事实测验并获得正确答案反馈（检索）、一次选择题并获得正确答案反馈（识别）、重新学习原始学习材料（再学习）或研究简答测验的问题和答案（测验研究）。八分钟后，参与者接受了最后的测试，包括重复问题（练习题的选择题版本）和应用问题（要求应用概念的从未见过的选择题）。实验2 （N = 158）和实验3 （N = 255）涉及相同的检索、再学习和测验研究条件，但涉及三轮检索练习和一周后的最终测试。结果在重复的期末考试问题上，检索比重新学习提高了成绩，但与测验学习或识别相比没有提高，而在应用期末考试问题上没有提高（实验1）。在重复期末考题（实验2）和应用性期末考题（实验3）上，检索比复习和测验学习效果更好。在准确的重复题表现条件下，应用题表现的条件分析显示了检索的优势，表明检索增强了迁移的识别成分。结论检索练习有利于复杂概念的保留和迁移。这些好处似乎更有可能发生，当提供足够数量的检索练习和学习是在几天的延迟测量。

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引用次数: 0