Micha Sues, Aidin Nojavan, Jan Kirchhof, R. Schirmacher
The transition from ICE to electric power trains in new vehicles along with the application of advanced active and passive noise reduction solutions has intensified the perception of noise sources not directly linked to the propulsion system. This includes road noise as amplified by the tire cavity resonance. This resonance mainly depends on tire geometry, gas temperature inside the tire and vehicle speed and is increasingly audible for larger wheels and heavier vehicles, as they are typical for current electrical SUV designs. Active technologies can be applied to significantly reduce narrow band tire cavity noise with low costs and minimal weight increase. Like ANC systems for ICE powertrains, they make use of the audio system in the vehicle. In this paper, a novel low-cost system for road induced tire cavity noise control (RTNC) is presented that reduces the tire cavity resonance noise inside a car cabin. The approach is cheap in terms of computational effort (likewise ICE order cancellation) as well as additional hardware components. The signal from only one single-axis-accelerometer is used to estimate the frequency of the tire cavity resonance in real time. The sensor position is chosen to achieve a high signal to noise ratio (SNR) for the resonance which leads to a robust frequency estimation but does not require specific high coherence with interior noise components. The interior microphones and speakers of the vehicle are used to control the narrow-band noise at the estimated frequency. The performance of the system is investigated based on the simulation results as well as measurements in a real vehicle. The results match well and demonstrate that the technology is well understood, allowing potential virtual system tuning based on reliable simulation data. The system shows a high global reduction of the cavity noise in the vehicle's interior.
随着新车动力系统从内燃机到电动的过渡，以及先进的主动和被动降噪解决方案的应用，人们对与推进系统无直接联系的噪声源有了更深刻的认识。这包括由轮胎空腔共振放大的路面噪声。这种共振主要取决于轮胎的几何形状、轮胎内气体的温度和车速，对于较大的车轮和较重的车辆，这种共振的声音越来越大，因为它们是目前电动 SUV 设计的典型特征。采用主动技术可大幅降低窄带胎腔噪声，而且成本低、重量增加少。与用于内燃机动力系统的 ANC 系统一样，它们也是利用车辆的音频系统。本文介绍了一种新型低成本道路诱导胎腔噪声控制（RTNC）系统，可降低汽车座舱内的胎腔共振噪声。该方法在计算量（同样是 ICE 阶次消除）和额外硬件组件方面都很便宜。仅使用一个单轴加速计的信号来实时估算轮胎空腔共振频率。传感器位置的选择是为了实现共振的高信噪比 (SNR)，从而实现稳健的频率估算，但不要求与车内噪声成分具有特定的高一致性。车内麦克风和扬声器用于控制估计频率的窄带噪声。根据模拟结果和实际车辆的测量结果，对系统的性能进行了研究。结果吻合度很高，表明该技术已被充分理解，可以根据可靠的模拟数据进行潜在的虚拟系统调整。该系统在很大程度上降低了汽车内部的空腔噪音。
{"title":"A Low-Cost System for Road Induced Tire Cavity Noise Control (RTNC)","authors":"Micha Sues, Aidin Nojavan, Jan Kirchhof, R. Schirmacher","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2961","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2961","url":null,"abstract":"The transition from ICE to electric power trains in new vehicles along with the application of advanced active and passive noise reduction solutions has intensified the perception of noise sources not directly linked to the propulsion system. This includes road noise as amplified by the tire cavity resonance. This resonance mainly depends on tire geometry, gas temperature inside the tire and vehicle speed and is increasingly audible for larger wheels and heavier vehicles, as they are typical for current electrical SUV designs. Active technologies can be applied to significantly reduce narrow band tire cavity noise with low costs and minimal weight increase. Like ANC systems for ICE powertrains, they make use of the audio system in the vehicle. In this paper, a novel low-cost system for road induced tire cavity noise control (RTNC) is presented that reduces the tire cavity resonance noise inside a car cabin. The approach is cheap in terms of computational effort (likewise ICE order cancellation) as well as additional hardware components. The signal from only one single-axis-accelerometer is used to estimate the frequency of the tire cavity resonance in real time. The sensor position is chosen to achieve a high signal to noise ratio (SNR) for the resonance which leads to a robust frequency estimation but does not require specific high coherence with interior noise components. The interior microphones and speakers of the vehicle are used to control the narrow-band noise at the estimated frequency. The performance of the system is investigated based on the simulation results as well as measurements in a real vehicle. The results match well and demonstrate that the technology is well understood, allowing potential virtual system tuning based on reliable simulation data. The system shows a high global reduction of the cavity noise in the vehicle's interior.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"46 11","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141353291","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In electrified vehicles, auxiliary units can be a dominant source of noise, one of which is the refrigerant scroll compressor. Compared to vehicles with combustion engines, e-vehicles require larger refrigerant compressors, as in addition to the interior, the battery and the electric motors must be cooled. The compressor causes the acoustic excitation of other refrigeration circuit components and the chassis via pressure pulsations and vibration transmission, as well as emitting airborne sound directly. Sound measurements have been performed in an anechoic chamber to investigate the influence of operating conditions on the acoustics of an electric scroll compressor. This paper investigates the influence of the operating conditions on compressor acoustics and shows that rotation speed is the main factor influencing compressor noise. The sound spectra of fluid, structure and airborne noise are dominated by speed-dependent, tonal components. Additionally the effect of varying pressure, superheat, vapor content and refrigerant filling quantity on the acoustic properties of the scroll compressor have been investigated. The findings provide insights into the physical relationship between operating conditions and acoustic parameters and enable the development of suitable sound reduction measures.
{"title":"Experimental Study of the Acoustics of an Electric Refrigerant Scroll Compressor","authors":"L. Saur, Stefan Becker","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2924","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2924","url":null,"abstract":"In electrified vehicles, auxiliary units can be a dominant source of noise, one of which is the refrigerant scroll compressor. Compared to vehicles with combustion engines, e-vehicles require larger refrigerant compressors, as in addition to the interior, the battery and the electric motors must be cooled. The compressor causes the acoustic excitation of other refrigeration circuit components and the chassis via pressure pulsations and vibration transmission, as well as emitting airborne sound directly. Sound measurements have been performed in an anechoic chamber to investigate the influence of operating conditions on the acoustics of an electric scroll compressor. This paper investigates the influence of the operating conditions on compressor acoustics and shows that rotation speed is the main factor influencing compressor noise. The sound spectra of fluid, structure and airborne noise are dominated by speed-dependent, tonal components. Additionally the effect of varying pressure, superheat, vapor content and refrigerant filling quantity on the acoustic properties of the scroll compressor have been investigated. The findings provide insights into the physical relationship between operating conditions and acoustic parameters and enable the development of suitable sound reduction measures.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"115 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141352253","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Jost Weber, J. Schatorje, Yona Frekers, Olaf Herrmann, Rafael Gries
Today’s engines used in Agriculture, Mining and Construction are designed for robustness and cost. Here, the Diesel powertrain is the established mainstream solution, offering long operation times without refueling at any desired power rating. In view of the steps towards Carbon Neutrality by 2050, this segment of the Transportation Sector needs to reduce its CO2 emissions. Currently, the EU and US emissions legislations (EU Stage V / EPA Tier4) do not include a CO2 reduction scheme, but this is expected to change with the next update towards EU Stage VI / EPA Tier5 coming into effect 2030 and after. Applications demanding high power or long operational range still require the use of renewable, liquid fuels or hydrogen. The cost-up of such fuels could be counterbalanced by more efficient engines in combination with a hybridized powertrain. The current paper therefore introduces a serial HEV solution for a large wheel loader application of 12t tipping load, which is an example of a typical use-case from the construction equipment industry. A control strategy was developed to operate at best system efficiency while also optimizing the heat-up of the aftertreatment system for minimizing the emissions below EUVII regulation limits for commercial vehicles. The controls are verified by using an NRTC engine test cycle whereas the electric components are modeled but a real Diesel engine including aftertreatment system is used on the engine dynamometer side.
{"title":"Potential of Serial Hybrid Powertrain Concepts towards Decarbonizing the Off-Highway Machinery","authors":"Jost Weber, J. Schatorje, Yona Frekers, Olaf Herrmann, Rafael Gries","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0018","url":null,"abstract":"Today’s engines used in Agriculture, Mining and Construction are designed for robustness and cost. Here, the Diesel powertrain is the established mainstream solution, offering long operation times without refueling at any desired power rating. In view of the steps towards Carbon Neutrality by 2050, this segment of the Transportation Sector needs to reduce its CO2 emissions. Currently, the EU and US emissions legislations (EU Stage V / EPA Tier4) do not include a CO2 reduction scheme, but this is expected to change with the next update towards EU Stage VI / EPA Tier5 coming into effect 2030 and after. Applications demanding high power or long operational range still require the use of renewable, liquid fuels or hydrogen. The cost-up of such fuels could be counterbalanced by more efficient engines in combination with a hybridized powertrain. The current paper therefore introduces a serial HEV solution for a large wheel loader application of 12t tipping load, which is an example of a typical use-case from the construction equipment industry. A control strategy was developed to operate at best system efficiency while also optimizing the heat-up of the aftertreatment system for minimizing the emissions below EUVII regulation limits for commercial vehicles. The controls are verified by using an NRTC engine test cycle whereas the electric components are modeled but a real Diesel engine including aftertreatment system is used on the engine dynamometer side.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"2 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141350196","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Cyril de Walque, Ji Woo Yoo, ChanHee Jeong, Taesik Kong
Finite element (FE) based simulations for fully trimmed bodies are a key tool in the automotive industry to predict and understand the Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) behavior of a complete car. While structural and acoustic transfer functions are nowadays straightforward to obtain from such models, the comprehensive understanding of the intrinsic behavior of the complete car is more complex to achieve, in particular when it comes to the contribution of each sub-part to the global response. This paper proposes a complete target cascading process, which first assesses which sub-part of the car is the most contributing to the interior noise, then decomposes the total structure-borne acoustic transfer function into several intermediate transfer functions, allowing to better understand the effect of local design changes. This transfer functions decomposition opens the door to cascading full-vehicle objectives, which typically consists of achieving a maximal noise level in the cabin, to component-level objectives. This process is demonstrated on the floor panel of an industrial FE model for which both the structural and acoustic transfer functions have been extensively validated against measurements. Intermediate transfer functions are computed and compared for several alternative designs. The same process is finally applied on reduced models, which consider only the floor panels and acoustic trims. Those reduced models allow much faster design iterations and prove to be reliably predicting trends.
基于有限元（FE）的全修整车身模拟是汽车行业预测和了解整车噪声、振动和声振粗糙度（NVH）行为的关键工具。虽然结构和声学传递函数如今可以直接从此类模型中获得，但要全面了解整车的内在行为却较为复杂，尤其是当涉及到每个子部件对整体响应的贡献时。本文提出了一个完整的目标级联过程，首先评估汽车的哪个子部件对车内噪声的贡献最大，然后将总的结构声学传递函数分解为多个中间传递函数，从而更好地理解局部设计变更的影响。这种传递函数分解为逐级实现全车目标（通常包括实现车厢内的最大噪音水平）和部件级目标打开了大门。我们在一个工业 FE 模型的底板上演示了这一过程，该模型的结构和声学传递函数已根据测量结果进行了广泛验证。对几种备选设计的中间传递函数进行了计算和比较。最后，同样的过程被应用于简化模型，即只考虑楼板和声学装饰。这些简化模型可以更快地进行设计迭代，并能可靠地预测趋势。
{"title":"Definition and Application of a Target Cascading Process on a Fully Trimmed Body, from Vehicle Objectives to Component Objectives","authors":"Cyril de Walque, Ji Woo Yoo, ChanHee Jeong, Taesik Kong","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2916","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2916","url":null,"abstract":"Finite element (FE) based simulations for fully trimmed bodies are a key tool in the automotive industry to predict and understand the Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) behavior of a complete car. While structural and acoustic transfer functions are nowadays straightforward to obtain from such models, the comprehensive understanding of the intrinsic behavior of the complete car is more complex to achieve, in particular when it comes to the contribution of each sub-part to the global response. This paper proposes a complete target cascading process, which first assesses which sub-part of the car is the most contributing to the interior noise, then decomposes the total structure-borne acoustic transfer function into several intermediate transfer functions, allowing to better understand the effect of local design changes. This transfer functions decomposition opens the door to cascading full-vehicle objectives, which typically consists of achieving a maximal noise level in the cabin, to component-level objectives. This process is demonstrated on the floor panel of an industrial FE model for which both the structural and acoustic transfer functions have been extensively validated against measurements. Intermediate transfer functions are computed and compared for several alternative designs. The same process is finally applied on reduced models, which consider only the floor panels and acoustic trims. Those reduced models allow much faster design iterations and prove to be reliably predicting trends.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"53 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141350326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
O. Chiavola, J. Matijošius, F. Palmieri, Erasmo Recco
In the frame of growing concerns over climate change and health, renewable fuels can make an important contribution to decarbonizing the transport sector.
The current work presents the results of an investigation into the impact of renewable fuels on the combustion and emissions of a turbocharged compression-ignition internal combustion engine. An experimental study was undertaken and the engine settings were not modified to account for the fuel's chemical and physical properties, to analyze the performance of the fuel as a potential drop-in alternative fuel. Three fuels were tested: mineral diesel, a blend of it with waste cooking oil biodiesel and a hydrogenated diesel. The analysis of the emissions at engine exhaust highlights that hydrogenated fuel is cleaner, reducing CO, total hydrocarbon emissions, particulate matter and NOx.
{"title":"Effects of Renewable Fuels on the Performance and Emissions of a Small Displacement Diesel Engine for Urban Mobility","authors":"O. Chiavola, J. Matijošius, F. Palmieri, Erasmo Recco","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0019","url":null,"abstract":"<div class=\"section abstract\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">In the frame of growing concerns over climate change and health, renewable fuels can make an important contribution to decarbonizing the transport sector.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">The current work presents the results of an investigation into the impact of renewable fuels on the combustion and emissions of a turbocharged compression-ignition internal combustion engine. An experimental study was undertaken and the engine settings were not modified to account for the fuel's chemical and physical properties, to analyze the performance of the fuel as a potential drop-in alternative fuel. Three fuels were tested: mineral diesel, a blend of it with waste cooking oil biodiesel and a hydrogenated diesel. The analysis of the emissions at engine exhaust highlights that hydrogenated fuel is cleaner, reducing CO, total hydrocarbon emissions, particulate matter and NO<sub>x</sub>.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"97 26","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141352965","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
E. Harry, R. Morris-Kirby, Eleonora Caponio, Minh Tan Hoang
As palliative acoustic material mixtures and compositions become more complex, the ability to accurately simulate their acoustic performance within an installed NVH component is becoming increasingly difficult. Historically, Biot parameters and their associated TMM models have been used to simulate the acoustic performance of multi-layered material compositions. However, these simulations are not able to account for real-world complexities such as manufacturing imperfections or inter-layer gluing effects. The assumptions made by simulation models, such as the perfectly diffuse field, are rarely true in actual measurements, let alone in the vehicle, further increasing the uncertainty when comparing measurement versus simulation.There already exists widely accepted methods for obtaining Biot parameters for single-layer materials. Typically, a multi-layer simulation considers each individual layer in isolation rather than its interactions with the rest of the composition after heating, compression, or gluing. The current trend towards sustainability is also adding restrictions to the types of materials that can be used. Target compliance for NVH components includes acoustic parameters and environmental impact, increasing the effort required for component quotation.This paper examines four possible approaches used to satisfy an OEM’s quotation request which range from flat samples to fully built vehicle systems. It successfully examines the suitability of bespoke machine learning algorithms combined with large measurement and simulation databases.
{"title":"The Use of Machine Learning Algorithms in the Simulation of Multi-Layer Acoustic Palliatives","authors":"E. Harry, R. Morris-Kirby, Eleonora Caponio, Minh Tan Hoang","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2928","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2928","url":null,"abstract":"As palliative acoustic material mixtures and compositions become more complex, the ability to accurately simulate their acoustic performance within an installed NVH component is becoming increasingly difficult. Historically, Biot parameters and their associated TMM models have been used to simulate the acoustic performance of multi-layered material compositions. However, these simulations are not able to account for real-world complexities such as manufacturing imperfections or inter-layer gluing effects. The assumptions made by simulation models, such as the perfectly diffuse field, are rarely true in actual measurements, let alone in the vehicle, further increasing the uncertainty when comparing measurement versus simulation.There already exists widely accepted methods for obtaining Biot parameters for single-layer materials. Typically, a multi-layer simulation considers each individual layer in isolation rather than its interactions with the rest of the composition after heating, compression, or gluing. The current trend towards sustainability is also adding restrictions to the types of materials that can be used. Target compliance for NVH components includes acoustic parameters and environmental impact, increasing the effort required for component quotation.This paper examines four possible approaches used to satisfy an OEM’s quotation request which range from flat samples to fully built vehicle systems. It successfully examines the suitability of bespoke machine learning algorithms combined with large measurement and simulation databases.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"73 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141353212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
David K. Mumford, Graham Williams, Nadege Leclercq
The global transportation industry, and road freight in particular, faces formidable challenges in reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions; both Europe and the US have already enabled legislation with CO2 / GHG reduction targets. In Europe, targets are set on a fleet level basis: a CO2 baseline has already been established using Heavy Duty Vehicle (HDV) data collected and analyzed by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 2019/2020. This baseline data has been published as the reference for the required CO2 reductions. More recently, the EU has proposed a Zero Emissions Vehicle definition of 3g CO2/t-km. The Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) designation is expected to be key to a number of market instruments that improve the economics and practicality of hydrogen trucks. This paper assesses the permissible amount of carbon-based fuel in hydrogen fueled vehicles – the Pilot Energy Ratio (PER) – for each regulated subgroup of HDVs in the baseline data set. The analysis indicates that a PER of ~4% is required to address the key long-haul groups (5LH, 9LH and 10LH) and potentially some Regional Distribution vehicles, but that much lower PERs are required for most of the Regional and Urban Delivery vehicles in this group. The assessment then looks at the impact of the actual vehicle configuration and identifies features impacting the PER such as rear axle ratio; for example, an engine may be capable of meeting the Zero Emissions requirement, but rear axle ratios greater than 3 may still cause a specific vehicle configuration to exceed 3g/t-km of CO2. The paper concludes by assessing the existing technology options to meet the ZEV requirements and the current state of these technologies against the required PER target.
{"title":"Assessing Heavy Duty Vehicle CO\u00002\u0000 Emissions for Qualification as a Zero Emissions Vehicle","authors":"David K. Mumford, Graham Williams, Nadege Leclercq","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0007","url":null,"abstract":"The global transportation industry, and road freight in particular, faces formidable challenges in reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions; both Europe and the US have already enabled legislation with CO2 / GHG reduction targets. In Europe, targets are set on a fleet level basis: a CO2 baseline has already been established using Heavy Duty Vehicle (HDV) data collected and analyzed by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 2019/2020. This baseline data has been published as the reference for the required CO2 reductions. More recently, the EU has proposed a Zero Emissions Vehicle definition of 3g CO2/t-km. The Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) designation is expected to be key to a number of market instruments that improve the economics and practicality of hydrogen trucks. This paper assesses the permissible amount of carbon-based fuel in hydrogen fueled vehicles – the Pilot Energy Ratio (PER) – for each regulated subgroup of HDVs in the baseline data set. The analysis indicates that a PER of ~4% is required to address the key long-haul groups (5LH, 9LH and 10LH) and potentially some Regional Distribution vehicles, but that much lower PERs are required for most of the Regional and Urban Delivery vehicles in this group. The assessment then looks at the impact of the actual vehicle configuration and identifies features impacting the PER such as rear axle ratio; for example, an engine may be capable of meeting the Zero Emissions requirement, but rear axle ratios greater than 3 may still cause a specific vehicle configuration to exceed 3g/t-km of CO2. The paper concludes by assessing the existing technology options to meet the ZEV requirements and the current state of these technologies against the required PER target.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"8 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141353505","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Julian Wallace, Robert Mitchell, Sandesh Rao, Kevin Jones, Dustin Kramer, Yanyu Wang, Paul Chambon, Scott Sjovall, D. R. Williams
In response to global climate change, there is a widespread push to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector. For the difficult to decarbonize heavy-duty (HD) vehicle sector, hybridization and lower carbon-intensity fuels can offer a low-cost, near-term solution for CO2 reduction. The use of natural gas can provide such an alternative for HD vehicles while the increasing availability of renewable natural gas affords the opportunity for much deeper reductions in net-CO2 emissions. With this in consideration, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory launched the Natural Gas Vehicle Research and Development Project to stimulate advancements in technology and availability of natural gas vehicles. As part of this program, Southwest Research Institute developed a hybrid-electric medium-HD vehicle (class 6) to demonstrate a substantial CO2 reduction over the baseline diesel vehicle and ultra-low NOx emissions. The development included the conversion of a 5.2 L diesel engine to spark-ignited natural gas with an aluminum, pent-roof cylinder head to provide a diesel-like torque curve and engine NOx emissions below 0.02 g/hp-hr (0.027 g/kWh). In parallel, a vehicle modeling study was performed to determine an optimum hybrid architecture for an Isuzu F-Series truck to provide the largest impact on fleet emissions. Variations of motor/generator location, battery voltage, and storage capacity were evaluated. Finally, the demonstration truck was built with the prototype engine and P2 plug-in hybrid system to provide performance and emissions validation of the overall concept. The vehicle was tested over several HD drive cycles, including the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model (GEM) certification cycles, and provided satisfactory performance. The GEM cycle results demonstrated a greater than 25% reduction in CO2 for the multi-purpose and urban subcategories. For the regional subcategory testing with a high percentage of highway speeds operation, the vehicle demonstrated a 13% reduction in CO2 due primarily to the lower carbon intensity fuel.
为应对全球气候变化，人们普遍推动减少交通部门的碳排放。对于难以去碳化的重型车辆（HD）行业来说，混合动力和低碳强度燃料可以为二氧化碳减排提供低成本的近期解决方案。天然气的使用可以为重型车辆提供这样一种选择，而可再生天然气的日益普及则为更大幅度地减少二氧化碳净排放量提供了机会。有鉴于此，美国国家可再生能源实验室启动了天然气汽车研发项目，以促进天然气汽车的技术进步和供应。作为该计划的一部分，美国西南研究院开发了一种混合动力电动中型重型车辆（6 级），与基准柴油车辆相比，二氧化碳排放量大幅减少，氮氧化物排放超低。开发工作包括将 5.2 L 柴油发动机改装为火花点燃式天然气发动机，采用铝制五顶气缸盖，以提供类似柴油发动机的扭矩曲线，发动机氮氧化物排放量低于 0.02 g/hp-hr（0.027 g/kWh）。与此同时，还进行了一项车辆建模研究，以确定五十铃 F 系列卡车的最佳混合动力结构，从而对车队排放产生最大影响。对电机/发电机位置、电池电压和存储容量的变化进行了评估。最后，使用原型发动机和 P2 插电式混合动力系统制造了示范卡车，对整体概念进行了性能和排放验证。该车在多个高清驱动循环（包括温室气体排放模型（GEM）认证循环）中进行了测试，性能令人满意。GEM 循环结果表明，多功能和城市子类别的二氧化碳排放量减少了 25% 以上。在高速行驶比例较高的区域子类别测试中，车辆的二氧化碳排放量减少了 13%，这主要归功于碳强度较低的燃料。
{"title":"Development of a Hybrid-Electric Medium-HD Demonstrator Vehicle with a Pent-Roof SI Natural Gas Engine","authors":"Julian Wallace, Robert Mitchell, Sandesh Rao, Kevin Jones, Dustin Kramer, Yanyu Wang, Paul Chambon, Scott Sjovall, D. R. Williams","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0026","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0026","url":null,"abstract":"In response to global climate change, there is a widespread push to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector. For the difficult to decarbonize heavy-duty (HD) vehicle sector, hybridization and lower carbon-intensity fuels can offer a low-cost, near-term solution for CO2 reduction. The use of natural gas can provide such an alternative for HD vehicles while the increasing availability of renewable natural gas affords the opportunity for much deeper reductions in net-CO2 emissions. With this in consideration, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory launched the Natural Gas Vehicle Research and Development Project to stimulate advancements in technology and availability of natural gas vehicles. As part of this program, Southwest Research Institute developed a hybrid-electric medium-HD vehicle (class 6) to demonstrate a substantial CO2 reduction over the baseline diesel vehicle and ultra-low NOx emissions. The development included the conversion of a 5.2 L diesel engine to spark-ignited natural gas with an aluminum, pent-roof cylinder head to provide a diesel-like torque curve and engine NOx emissions below 0.02 g/hp-hr (0.027 g/kWh). In parallel, a vehicle modeling study was performed to determine an optimum hybrid architecture for an Isuzu F-Series truck to provide the largest impact on fleet emissions. Variations of motor/generator location, battery voltage, and storage capacity were evaluated. Finally, the demonstration truck was built with the prototype engine and P2 plug-in hybrid system to provide performance and emissions validation of the overall concept. The vehicle was tested over several HD drive cycles, including the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model (GEM) certification cycles, and provided satisfactory performance. The GEM cycle results demonstrated a greater than 25% reduction in CO2 for the multi-purpose and urban subcategories. For the regional subcategory testing with a high percentage of highway speeds operation, the vehicle demonstrated a 13% reduction in CO2 due primarily to the lower carbon intensity fuel.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"11 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141354879","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Patrick Heidegger, Felix Czwielong, S. Schoder, Stefan Becker, Manfred Kaltenbacher
Centrifugal fans are applied in many industrial and civil applications, such as manufacturing processes and building HVAC systems. They can also be found in automotive applications. Noise-reduction measures for centrifugal fans are often challenging to establish, as acoustic performance may be considered a tertiary purchase criterion after energetic efficiency and price. Nonetheless, their versatile application raises the demand for noise control. In a low-Mach-number centrifugal fan, acoustic waves are predominantly excited by aerodynamic fluctuations in the flow field and transmit to the exterior via the housing and duct walls. The scientific literature documents numerous mechanisms that cause flow-induced sound generation, even though not all of them are considered well-understood. Numerical simulation methods are widely used to gather spatially high-resolved insights into physical fields. However, for a centrifugal fan, the numerical simulation of the coupled aero- and vibroacoustic sound emission faces several hurdles, including a tedious meshing procedure, rotating parts, and the disparity of physical scales that need to be resolved for the acoustic field, the flow field, and the mechanical field. This work thus suggests a hybrid workflow to simulate sound generation and the through-wall sound transmission of an enclosed centrifugal fan. The workflow is based on three consecutive simulation runs: 1) a finite-volume-based incompressible CFD simulation to determine the low-Mach-number flow field, 2) a finite-element-based computational aeroacoustic simulation to determine the in-duct sound field, and 3) a finite-element-based vibroacoustic simulation that solves for the direct-coupled mechanic-acoustic simulation to determine the through-wall sound transmission. Additionally, an exemplary simulation of a test fan is conducted and discussed.
{"title":"A Finite-Element-Simulation Workflow and First Results of the Aero- and Vibro-Acoustic Signature of an Enclosed Centrifugal Fan","authors":"Patrick Heidegger, Felix Czwielong, S. Schoder, Stefan Becker, Manfred Kaltenbacher","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2940","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2940","url":null,"abstract":"Centrifugal fans are applied in many industrial and civil applications, such as manufacturing processes and building HVAC systems. They can also be found in automotive applications. Noise-reduction measures for centrifugal fans are often challenging to establish, as acoustic performance may be considered a tertiary purchase criterion after energetic efficiency and price. Nonetheless, their versatile application raises the demand for noise control. In a low-Mach-number centrifugal fan, acoustic waves are predominantly excited by aerodynamic fluctuations in the flow field and transmit to the exterior via the housing and duct walls. The scientific literature documents numerous mechanisms that cause flow-induced sound generation, even though not all of them are considered well-understood. Numerical simulation methods are widely used to gather spatially high-resolved insights into physical fields. However, for a centrifugal fan, the numerical simulation of the coupled aero- and vibroacoustic sound emission faces several hurdles, including a tedious meshing procedure, rotating parts, and the disparity of physical scales that need to be resolved for the acoustic field, the flow field, and the mechanical field. This work thus suggests a hybrid workflow to simulate sound generation and the through-wall sound transmission of an enclosed centrifugal fan. The workflow is based on three consecutive simulation runs: 1) a finite-volume-based incompressible CFD simulation to determine the low-Mach-number flow field, 2) a finite-element-based computational aeroacoustic simulation to determine the in-duct sound field, and 3) a finite-element-based vibroacoustic simulation that solves for the direct-coupled mechanic-acoustic simulation to determine the through-wall sound transmission. Additionally, an exemplary simulation of a test fan is conducted and discussed.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"4 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141350997","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
D. Perrone, L. Falbo, Biagio Falbo, T. Castiglione
This work aims at investigating the optimal configuration of an internal combustion engine fueled with bio-ethanol for improving its brake power and efficiency as well as for reducing the NOx emissions, in stationary applications. A turbocharged spark ignition engine characterized by a single-point injection was preliminarily considered; subsequently, a direct injection configuration was investigated. For both cases, a 1-D numerical model was developed to compare the injection configurations under stoichiometric conditions and different spark timings. The analysis shows that the direct injection guarantees: a limited improvement of brake power and efficiency when the same spark timing is adopted, while NOx emissions increases by 20%; an increase of 6% in brake power and 2 percentage points in brake thermal efficiency by adopting the knock limited spark advance, but an almost double NOx emissions increase. In order to exploit the advantages of the direct injection, an engine configuration characterized by higher compression ratio, lower boost pressure and different cam phasing was proposed. By adopting a spark timing of 23°CA BTDC and a lean mixture (ϕ = 0.8), the engine provides a brake power of 232 kW, a brake thermal efficiency of 42%, which are 4% and 14 percentage points higher than single point configuration, respectively, and NOx emissions, amounting to 3 g/kWh, 9% lower with respect to single point injection.
{"title":"Evaluation of an Optimal Engine Configuration for a SI Engine Fueled with Ethanol for Stationary Applications","authors":"D. Perrone, L. Falbo, Biagio Falbo, T. Castiglione","doi":"10.4271/2024-37-0024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-37-0024","url":null,"abstract":"This work aims at investigating the optimal configuration of an internal combustion engine fueled with bio-ethanol for improving its brake power and efficiency as well as for reducing the NOx emissions, in stationary applications. A turbocharged spark ignition engine characterized by a single-point injection was preliminarily considered; subsequently, a direct injection configuration was investigated. For both cases, a 1-D numerical model was developed to compare the injection configurations under stoichiometric conditions and different spark timings. The analysis shows that the direct injection guarantees: a limited improvement of brake power and efficiency when the same spark timing is adopted, while NOx emissions increases by 20%; an increase of 6% in brake power and 2 percentage points in brake thermal efficiency by adopting the knock limited spark advance, but an almost double NOx emissions increase. In order to exploit the advantages of the direct injection, an engine configuration characterized by higher compression ratio, lower boost pressure and different cam phasing was proposed. By adopting a spark timing of 23°CA BTDC and a lean mixture (ϕ = 0.8), the engine provides a brake power of 232 kW, a brake thermal efficiency of 42%, which are 4% and 14 percentage points higher than single point configuration, respectively, and NOx emissions, amounting to 3 g/kWh, 9% lower with respect to single point injection.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"58 11","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141350436","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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