During the Tokugawa Period, northeastern Japan has been thought one of the poorest region in the country for the population had been decreasing for over 100 years as early as the 18th century. In particular, farmers had been severely affected by several famines, especially in 1783. I have reevaluated the social and economic situation after 1783 by investigating the details of the in-migration plan. The in-migration plan in the study area was not a kind of welfare policy to relieve farmers affected by the 1783 great famine, but evidence shows the beginning of a proto-industrialization. The demand for female labor to produce hemp cloths increased rapidly from the beginning of the 19th century. Women who were good at weaving were invited as brides.
{"title":"Population increase policy after the 1783 great famine in northeastern Tokugawa Japan.","authors":"H. Kawaguchi","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1996.1916","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1996.1916","url":null,"abstract":"During the Tokugawa Period, northeastern Japan has been thought one of the poorest region in the country for the population had been decreasing for over 100 years as early as the 18th century. In particular, farmers had been severely affected by several famines, especially in 1783. I have reevaluated the social and economic situation after 1783 by investigating the details of the in-migration plan. The in-migration plan in the study area was not a kind of welfare policy to relieve farmers affected by the 1783 great famine, but evidence shows the beginning of a proto-industrialization. The demand for female labor to produce hemp cloths increased rapidly from the beginning of the 19th century. Women who were good at weaving were invited as brides.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"89 1","pages":"151-68"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85098052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Norwegian scholars have engaged in considerable research over the last half century in an attempt to assess the impact of the Black Plague of 1349 on population and society in Norway. Evidence has been put forward relating the incidence of plague to a continuance of population decline over the two centuries following its initial introduction. Estimates of population decline in Norway between 1350 and 1550 indicate a reduction by as much as 65%. Two directions of study have emerged, one concentrating on land abandonment known as the "Ødegard Project." The other is represented by the recent works of Ole Jørgen Benedictow presenting epidemiological and osteo-archaeological research. An examination of the available literature raises questions concerning the degree to which plague, and its recurrence, directly affected population decline in Norway during the Late Middle Ages. While evidence of the virulence of the plague and the degree of farm abandonment is compelling, a direct relationship to population decline may not be as great as implied by the research. Other explanatory factors, especially social and economic responses to plague, have been given limited attention.
{"title":"Population decline and plague in late medieval Norway.","authors":"J. A. Brothen","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1996.1915","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1996.1915","url":null,"abstract":"Norwegian scholars have engaged in considerable research over the last half century in an attempt to assess the impact of the Black Plague of 1349 on population and society in Norway. Evidence has been put forward relating the incidence of plague to a continuance of population decline over the two centuries following its initial introduction. Estimates of population decline in Norway between 1350 and 1550 indicate a reduction by as much as 65%. Two directions of study have emerged, one concentrating on land abandonment known as the \"Ødegard Project.\" The other is represented by the recent works of Ole Jørgen Benedictow presenting epidemiological and osteo-archaeological research. An examination of the available literature raises questions concerning the degree to which plague, and its recurrence, directly affected population decline in Norway during the Late Middle Ages. While evidence of the virulence of the plague and the degree of farm abandonment is compelling, a direct relationship to population decline may not be as great as implied by the research. Other explanatory factors, especially social and economic responses to plague, have been given limited attention.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"103 1","pages":"137-49"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85481545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
"Mexico's Other Wars" refers to the fight against disease, particularly epidemic disease, during the period when Mexico gained its independence and was involved in the very conflictive process of nation-building, from 1810-1867. Controlling and eradicating disease was an integral part of that process. In this period, fighting disease assumed the crucial political purpose of making all people healthier as one means of building an economically productive civil society. To attain this goal, early nineteenth-century local policy makers organized an increasingly secular and integrated public health system governed by municipal and state officials who legislated local public health regulations. While disease was not eradicated, the incidence and severity of epidemics decreased and likely contributed, as one of many factors, to population increase. This process was evident in the city and state of Guanajuato, the focus of this paper, for Guanajuato's population almost doubled in this period despite war and intermittent armed conflict.
{"title":"Mexico's other wars: epidemics, disease, and public health in Guanajuato, Mexico, 1810-1867.","authors":"A. Thompson","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1996.1917","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1996.1917","url":null,"abstract":"\"Mexico's Other Wars\" refers to the fight against disease, particularly epidemic disease, during the period when Mexico gained its independence and was involved in the very conflictive process of nation-building, from 1810-1867. Controlling and eradicating disease was an integral part of that process. In this period, fighting disease assumed the crucial political purpose of making all people healthier as one means of building an economically productive civil society. To attain this goal, early nineteenth-century local policy makers organized an increasingly secular and integrated public health system governed by municipal and state officials who legislated local public health regulations. While disease was not eradicated, the incidence and severity of epidemics decreased and likely contributed, as one of many factors, to population increase. This process was evident in the city and state of Guanajuato, the focus of this paper, for Guanajuato's population almost doubled in this period despite war and intermittent armed conflict.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"6 1","pages":"169-94"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86557979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This essay highlights the ways in which epidemics shaped Japanese military campaigns in Taiwan in 1874 and again in 1895, as well as subsequent colonial policy after 1895. I have focused on these particular campaigns because a vast body of source materials exists which allows us not only to understand the diseases which ravaged the Japanese forces, but also to determine their effects on particular battles and subsequent Japanese military, foreign and colonial policy. For example, during the 1874 campaign in the southern tip of Taiwan, of the approximately 5,990 men at risk, only 4 soldiers were killed in battle, while 20 succumbed to battle wounds and other injuries. In contrast, 547 men died of disease, particularly malaria. During the 1895 campaign, the Japanese force of just over 50,000 men suffered horrific losses due to epidemics, with 4,642 soldiers dying of diseses as opposed to 164 killed in battle and 515 wounded or injured. Although the Japanese quickly won the war against the resistance forces, their battle against Taiwan's epidemics had only just begun, as thousands of Japanese soldiers and civilians perished during the first ears of the Japanese Occupation era (1895-1945). The Japanese soon realized that they would have to solve Taiwan's public health problems if they were to have any hope of effectively governing their new colony. As a result some of the first regulations of the colonial government concerned sanitation and quarantine measures. All in all, Japanese colonial policy and its colonial modernization of Taiwan appear to have been significantly shaped by fear of the island's epidemics and the need to bring them under control.
{"title":"Germs of disaster: the impact of epidemics on Japanese military campaigns in Taiwan, 1874 and 1895.","authors":"P. Katz","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1996.1918","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1996.1918","url":null,"abstract":"This essay highlights the ways in which epidemics shaped Japanese military campaigns in Taiwan in 1874 and again in 1895, as well as subsequent colonial policy after 1895. I have focused on these particular campaigns because a vast body of source materials exists which allows us not only to understand the diseases which ravaged the Japanese forces, but also to determine their effects on particular battles and subsequent Japanese military, foreign and colonial policy. For example, during the 1874 campaign in the southern tip of Taiwan, of the approximately 5,990 men at risk, only 4 soldiers were killed in battle, while 20 succumbed to battle wounds and other injuries. In contrast, 547 men died of disease, particularly malaria. During the 1895 campaign, the Japanese force of just over 50,000 men suffered horrific losses due to epidemics, with 4,642 soldiers dying of diseses as opposed to 164 killed in battle and 515 wounded or injured. Although the Japanese quickly won the war against the resistance forces, their battle against Taiwan's epidemics had only just begun, as thousands of Japanese soldiers and civilians perished during the first ears of the Japanese Occupation era (1895-1945). The Japanese soon realized that they would have to solve Taiwan's public health problems if they were to have any hope of effectively governing their new colony. As a result some of the first regulations of the colonial government concerned sanitation and quarantine measures. All in all, Japanese colonial policy and its colonial modernization of Taiwan appear to have been significantly shaped by fear of the island's epidemics and the need to bring them under control.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"7 1","pages":"195-220"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78755343","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper is a reexamination of the Winter hypothesis, which holds that there was a marked difference in the development of civilian health during the First World War between the central powers and the Western allies. Ultimate success on the battlefield, according to Winter, required balancing the needs of the military with civilian demands; Germany lost because it failed to achieve such a balance. The resulting decline in health standards undermined the war effort and eventually led to defeat. This article proceeds in two steps. First, it demonstrates that Winter's data does not allow him to make a proper comparison between the two camps. Second, I argue that his hypothesis can be refuted once a truly comparable source is used--infant mortality rated. There is as yet no convincing evidence to suggest that the outcome of the First world War was determined by public health policy.
{"title":"Civilian health during WWI and the causes of German defeat: a reexamination of the winter hypothesis.","authors":"H. Voth","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1995.1903","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1995.1903","url":null,"abstract":"This paper is a reexamination of the Winter hypothesis, which holds that there was a marked difference in the development of civilian health during the First World War between the central powers and the Western allies. Ultimate success on the battlefield, according to Winter, required balancing the needs of the military with civilian demands; Germany lost because it failed to achieve such a balance. The resulting decline in health standards undermined the war effort and eventually led to defeat. This article proceeds in two steps. First, it demonstrates that Winter's data does not allow him to make a proper comparison between the two camps. Second, I argue that his hypothesis can be refuted once a truly comparable source is used--infant mortality rated. There is as yet no convincing evidence to suggest that the outcome of the First world War was determined by public health policy.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"C-35 1","pages":"291-307"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84451423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Reliable, good quality source material is required for any demographic study. By selecting specific examples from York during the parish register period and Sheffield during the civil registratiion period deficiencies in both ecclesiastical and civil registration are discussed with reference to how they affect infant and adult mortality calculations. In particular, the extent to which the deaths of very young infants were registered is considered in detail. Bourgeois-Pichat's biometric test, Farr's early life tables and Coale and Demeny's model life tables have all been used to correct inaccuracies within original sources. We consider the limitations of each of these methods and suggest that a reassessment of the quality of vital registration data and the methods used to make corrections is needed in order to make further advances in historical demography possible.
{"title":"Detection without correction: problems in assessing the quality of English ecclesiastical and civil registration.","authors":"C. Galley, N. Williams, R. Woods","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1995.1896","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1995.1896","url":null,"abstract":"Reliable, good quality source material is required for any demographic study. By selecting specific examples from York during the parish register period and Sheffield during the civil registratiion period deficiencies in both ecclesiastical and civil registration are discussed with reference to how they affect infant and adult mortality calculations. In particular, the extent to which the deaths of very young infants were registered is considered in detail. Bourgeois-Pichat's biometric test, Farr's early life tables and Coale and Demeny's model life tables have all been used to correct inaccuracies within original sources. We consider the limitations of each of these methods and suggest that a reassessment of the quality of vital registration data and the methods used to make corrections is needed in order to make further advances in historical demography possible.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"1 1","pages":"161-83"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83103759","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Cet article modere la vue optimiste de l'effet positif de la Grande Guerre sur le taux de mortalite infantile a Londres. L'effet positif ne joue pleinement qu'apres novembre 1918. Pendant le conflit le taux de mortalite infantile a Londres ne decline que lentement, puis apres 1918 la baisse s'accelere. Avant l'armistice le niveau de la mortalite infantile etait la resultante des effets positifs et negatifs des conditions sociales de la guerre. Apres l'armistice, beaucoup des effets negatifs de la guerre disparurent tandis que les effets positifs du progres des politiques de protection de la maternite et de l'enfance a Londres continuerent a favoriser les chances de survie des bebes.
{"title":"The impact of the great war on infant mortality in London.","authors":"J. Winter, J. Lawrence, J. Ariouat","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1993.1846","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1993.1846","url":null,"abstract":"Cet article modere la vue optimiste de l'effet positif de la Grande Guerre sur le taux de mortalite infantile a Londres. L'effet positif ne joue pleinement qu'apres novembre 1918. Pendant le conflit le taux de mortalite infantile a Londres ne decline que lentement, puis apres 1918 la baisse s'accelere. Avant l'armistice le niveau de la mortalite infantile etait la resultante des effets positifs et negatifs des conditions sociales de la guerre. Apres l'armistice, beaucoup des effets negatifs de la guerre disparurent tandis que les effets positifs du progres des politiques de protection de la maternite et de l'enfance a Londres continuerent a favoriser les chances de survie des bebes.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"13 39 1","pages":"329-53"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1993-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78712514","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Le calcul de la population anglaise par extrapolation et retro-projection, a partir du nombres des habitants du pays en 1871 et en utilisant la methode dite "homeostatique" , fondee sur les mariages feconds, parait en general donner des resultats tout a fait fiables, a l'exception des resultats de 1801 et de 1841. Si l'on se fie aux etudes actuellement disponibles sur le sujet, les ecarts constates pour 1801 semblent dus au caractere incomplet du premier recensement. En ce qui concerne l'annee problematique qu'est 1841, le present article essaie de prouver de differentes manieres que, contrairement a l'opinion predominante, les raisons pour lesquelles existent les differences bien connues entre le denombrement officiel des naissances qui commence en 1837 et le recensement de 1841 paraissent beaucoup moins devoir etre cherchees dans des lacunes des statistiques tirees de l'etat civil que dans l'existence de doubles comptages dans le recensement, ce qui implique que les resultats trouves a partir de la methode « homeostatique » pour 1841 sont tout a fait fiables.
{"title":"English population statistics for the first half of the Nineteenth Century: a new answer to old questions.","authors":"H. P. Nusteling","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1993.1840","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1993.1840","url":null,"abstract":"Le calcul de la population anglaise par extrapolation et retro-projection, a partir du nombres des habitants du pays en 1871 et en utilisant la methode dite \"homeostatique\" , fondee sur les mariages feconds, parait en general donner des resultats tout a fait fiables, a l'exception des resultats de 1801 et de 1841. Si l'on se fie aux etudes actuellement disponibles sur le sujet, les ecarts constates pour 1801 semblent dus au caractere incomplet du premier recensement. En ce qui concerne l'annee problematique qu'est 1841, le present article essaie de prouver de differentes manieres que, contrairement a l'opinion predominante, les raisons pour lesquelles existent les differences bien connues entre le denombrement officiel des naissances qui commence en 1837 et le recensement de 1841 paraissent beaucoup moins devoir etre cherchees dans des lacunes des statistiques tirees de l'etat civil que dans l'existence de doubles comptages dans le recensement, ce qui implique que les resultats trouves a partir de la methode « homeostatique » pour 1841 sont tout a fait fiables.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"13 1","pages":"171-89"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1993-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90878806","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The article describes local variations in fertility across contiguous communes in Roussillon and Bas-Languedoc in the 1860s. It identifies two distinctive fertility regimes, as measured by the Princeton indices : high in Roussillon, low in Bas-Languedoc. These are compared with variations in geography, economy, religiosity, literacy and provincial culture as manifested in language. Its distinctive language and culture, Catalan, explains Roussillon's high fertility regime. Geographie and economic forces, as well as religious attachment, explain small variations within the respective fertility regimes, but not between them. The article concludes that reproductive behavior is itself a cultural attribute.
{"title":"The determinants of local variations in fertility in Bas-Languedoc and Roussillon during the mid-nineteenth century.","authors":"P. Adams","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1990.1765","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1990.1765","url":null,"abstract":"The article describes local variations in fertility across contiguous communes in Roussillon and Bas-Languedoc in the 1860s. It identifies two distinctive fertility regimes, as measured by the Princeton indices : high in Roussillon, low in Bas-Languedoc. These are compared with variations in geography, economy, religiosity, literacy and provincial culture as manifested in language. Its distinctive language and culture, Catalan, explains Roussillon's high fertility regime. Geographie and economic forces, as well as religious attachment, explain small variations within the respective fertility regimes, but not between them. The article concludes that reproductive behavior is itself a cultural attribute.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"88 1","pages":"155-72"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1990-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89178208","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Cette etude presente des preuves demographiques que la defense de la sante publique, par le maintien du niveau de vie, fut une des conditions necessaires de la victoire militaire des Allies pendant la Grande guerre. L'analyse des statistiques de mortalite parmi les civils confirme ce contraste entre les deux adversaires. L'explication de cette distinction se trouve dans le fait que les Allies ont reussi a maintenir leur niveau de vie, tandis que les Pouvoirs Centraux ne l'ont pas. L'economie politique des Allies a reussi a equilibrer les besoins civils et militaires. Les Allemands ont fonde le premier "military-industrial complex" qui a appauvri la population. En 1918, cette situation a commence a etre insupportable, apres que tout espoir de victoire militaire fut perdu. Le resultat fut la debâcle domestique et la defaite militaire.
{"title":"Demographic history and the political economy of war in western Europe, 1914-1918.","authors":"J. Winter","doi":"10.3406/ADH.1990.1778","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3406/ADH.1990.1778","url":null,"abstract":"Cette etude presente des preuves demographiques que la defense de la sante publique, par le maintien du niveau de vie, fut une des conditions necessaires de la victoire militaire des Allies pendant la Grande guerre. L'analyse des statistiques de mortalite parmi les civils confirme ce contraste entre les deux adversaires. L'explication de cette distinction se trouve dans le fait que les Allies ont reussi a maintenir leur niveau de vie, tandis que les Pouvoirs Centraux ne l'ont pas. L'economie politique des Allies a reussi a equilibrer les besoins civils et militaires. Les Allemands ont fonde le premier \"military-industrial complex\" qui a appauvri la population. En 1918, cette situation a commence a etre insupportable, apres que tout espoir de victoire militaire fut perdu. Le resultat fut la debâcle domestique et la defaite militaire.","PeriodicalId":52444,"journal":{"name":"Annales de Demographie Historique","volume":"151 1","pages":"379-407"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1990-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79542531","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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