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Embattled Cooperation(s): Peaceful Atoms, Pacifist Physicists, and Partisans of Peace in the Early Cold War (1947–1957) 四面派的合作:冷战初期的和平原子、和平主义物理学家和和平派(1947-1957)
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2019-02-07 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-019-00236-x
Stefano Salvia

The famous nuclear physicist Bruno Pontecorvo, who defected to the USSR in 1950, was affiliated to the internationalist network called “Partisans of Peace,” founded in 1949. Later renamed the World Peace Council, it was an organization of pacifist scientists, intellectuals, and artists like Frédéric Joliot-Curie and Pablo Picasso that was similar to the Pugwash movement, but part of the Comintern (later Cominform). As noted by Albert Einstein, the Partisans of Peace were “pacifist” in a very particular sense: they strongly criticized Western nuclear policies, but they justified the Soviet atomic programme as inevitable response to them. At the same time, physicists who joined the 1955 Russell–Einstein Manifesto like Joseph Rotblat and Norbert Wiener, or the 1957 G?ttingen Declaration like Otto Hahn and Max Born, were suspicious about the 1955 “Atoms for Peace” program, sponsored by the United States to balance the Soviet influence in Europe as well as in non-aligned countries. I will discuss these different—and partially overlapping—scientific-cooperation networks built in the name of “peace” during the hottest years of the Cold War, when peace itself had become an ideological weapon in the hands of a militarized science.

1950年叛逃到苏联的著名核物理学家布鲁诺·庞特科尔沃(Bruno Pontecorvo)是1949年成立的国际主义组织“和平游击队”(Partisans of Peace)的成员。它后来更名为世界和平委员会,是一个由和平主义科学家、知识分子和艺术家组成的组织,如弗莱姆·约里奥·居里和巴勃罗·毕加索,它类似于帕格沃什运动,但它是共产国际(后来的Cominform)的一部分。正如阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦所指出的那样,和平游击队在某种意义上是“和平主义者”:他们强烈批评西方的核政策,但他们认为苏联的原子计划是对他们的必然回应。与此同时,加入1955年罗素-爱因斯坦宣言的物理学家,如约瑟夫·罗特布拉特和诺伯特·维纳,或1957年的G?像奥托·哈恩和马克斯·伯恩这样的人,对1955年由美国发起的“原子和平”计划持怀疑态度,该计划旨在平衡苏联在欧洲和不结盟国家的影响力。我将讨论这些不同的——部分重叠的——科学合作网络,它们是在冷战最激烈的年代以“和平”的名义建立起来的,当时和平本身已经成为军事化科学手中的意识形态武器。
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引用次数: 1
Physics Is Its History 物理学是它的历史
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-12-10 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0231-1
Robert Crease, Joseph D. Martin, Peter Pesic
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引用次数: 0
Four Facts Everyone Ought to Know about Science: The Two-Culture Concerns of Philip W. Anderson 关于科学,每个人都应该知道的四个事实:菲利普·w·安德森的两种文化关注
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-11-27 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0229-8
Andrew Zhang, Andrew Zangwill

Lay people have a large appetite for information about scientific and technological issues that affect them, such as self-driving automobiles, gene manipulation, and climate change. However, this information must be clear and accurate if they are to use it to make informed political decisions. In 1994, the Nobel prize–winning physicist Philip W. Anderson used a newspaper essay to convey his concerns about the fidelity of the communication channels that connect the public to the creators of technical knowledge. He also suggested strategies to improve the quality of that communication. We analyze that essay and other writings by Anderson to identify the origins of his concerns and to place them in the larger context of his scientific philosophy.

非专业人士对影响他们的科技问题的信息有很大的兴趣,比如自动驾驶汽车、基因操纵和气候变化。但是,如果他们要利用这些信息作出明智的政治决定,这些信息必须是清晰和准确的。1994年,诺贝尔奖得主、物理学家菲利普·w·安德森(Philip W. Anderson)在一篇报纸文章中表达了他对将公众与技术知识创造者联系起来的沟通渠道的保真度的担忧。他还提出了提高这种沟通质量的战略。我们分析了这篇文章和安德森的其他作品,以确定他关注的根源,并将它们置于他的科学哲学的更大背景中。
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引用次数: 1
Interrogating the Legend of Einstein's “Biggest Blunder” 质疑爱因斯坦“最大的错误”的传说
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-11-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0228-9
Cormac O’Raifeartaigh, Simon Mitton

It is well known that, following the emergence of the first evidence for an expanding universe, Albert Einstein banished the cosmological constant term from his cosmology. Indeed, he is reputed to have labelled the term, originally introduced to the field equations of general relativity in 1917 in order to predict a static universe, his “biggest blunder.” However, serious doubts about this reported statement have been raised in recent years. We interrogate the legend of Einstein’s “biggest blunder” statement in the context of our recent studies of Einstein’s cosmology in his later years. We find that the remark is highly compatible with Einstein’s cosmic models of the 1930s, with his later writings on cosmology, and with independent reports by at least three physicists. We conclude that there is little doubt that Einstein came to view the introduction of the cosmological constant term as a serious error and that he very likely labelled the term his “biggest blunder” on at least one occasion. This finding may be of some relevance for those theoreticians today who seek to describe the recently discovered acceleration in cosmic expansion without the use of a cosmological constant term.

众所周知,随着宇宙膨胀的第一个证据的出现,阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦从他的宇宙学中剔除了宇宙常数项。1917年,为了预测一个静态的宇宙,他最初将这个术语引入广义相对论的场方程中,据说他曾将其称为“最大的错误”。然而,近年来对这一报道的说法提出了严重的质疑。我们在最近对爱因斯坦晚年的宇宙学研究的背景下,对爱因斯坦“最大的错误”声明的传说进行了质疑。我们发现,这句话与爱因斯坦在20世纪30年代的宇宙模型、他后来关于宇宙学的著作以及至少三位物理学家的独立报告高度吻合。我们得出的结论是,毫无疑问,爱因斯坦认为引入宇宙常数项是一个严重的错误,他很可能至少在一个场合把这个术语称为他“最大的错误”。这一发现可能与今天那些试图描述最近发现的宇宙膨胀加速而不使用宇宙常数项的理论家有一些关联。
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引用次数: 9
On “Minor” Scientists 关于“小”科学家
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-08-21 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0226-y
Robert P. Crease, Joseph D. Martin, Peter Pesic
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引用次数: 0
Fueling Peter’s Mill: Mikhail Lomonosov’s Educational Training in Russia and Germany, 1731–1741 给彼得的磨坊加油:米哈伊尔·罗蒙诺索夫在俄国和德国的教育训练,1731-1741
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-08-17 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0227-x
Robert P. Crease, Vladimir Shiltsev

This article, the second in a series about the Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), traces his education from his arrival in Moscow in 1731 to study at the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy, through his admission to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1736, to his trip abroad to complete his educational studies from 1736 to 1741. Lomonosov’s story during this time opens a vista on the introduction of modern physics and modern science into Russia. Michael D. Gordin has argued that Peter the Great’s plans to Westernize Russia were more broadly conceived than he is usually credited, with ambitions that exceeded mere utilitarian and pragmatic goals. Lomonosov’s career trajectory is a good example, illustrating how different aspects of the Petrine vision intersected with and reinforced each other. The article ends with Lomonosov’s return to Russia from Germany in 1741, an important landmark in the growth of the Academy and of Russian science.

本文是关于俄罗斯科学家米哈伊尔·罗蒙诺索夫(Mikhail Lomonosov, 1711-1765)的系列文章中的第二篇,追溯了他的教育经历,从1731年来到莫斯科,在斯拉夫-希腊-拉丁学院学习,到1736年被圣彼得堡科学院录取,再到1736年至1741年出国完成学业。在这段时间里,罗蒙诺索夫的故事打开了现代物理学和现代科学进入俄罗斯的前景。迈克尔·d·戈丁(Michael D. Gordin)认为,彼得大帝西化俄罗斯的计划比人们通常认为的要更广泛,他的野心超越了单纯的功利主义和务实目标。罗蒙诺索夫的职业轨迹就是一个很好的例子,说明了彼得林愿景的不同方面是如何相互交叉和加强的。文章以1741年罗蒙诺索夫从德国回到俄罗斯作为结尾,这是科学院和俄罗斯科学发展的一个重要里程碑。
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引用次数: 1
Ludvig Lorenz and His Non-Maxwellian Electrical Theory of Light 洛伦兹和他的非麦克斯韦光电学理论
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-07-03 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0223-1
Helge Kragh

Maxwell’s celebrated electromagnetic theory of light dates from 1865. Two years later, without appealing to the ether as a carrier of light waves, the Danish physicist Ludvig Lorenz (1829–1891) independently published another electrical theory of light based on optical equations and the novel idea of retarded potentials. In spite of resting on a very different conceptual foundation, Lorenz’s theory led to almost the same results as Maxwell’s. But whereas Maxwell’s field theory heralded a revolution in physics, Lorenz’s alternative was largely forgotten and soon relegated to a footnote in the history of physics. In part based on archival material and other sources in Danish, this paper offers a detailed contextual account of Lorentz’s theory and its reception in the physics community. Moreover, it includes a brief introduction to other of Lorenz’s scientific contributions and discusses the reasons why his electrical theory of light failed to attract serious interest.

麦克斯韦著名的电磁光理论诞生于1865年。两年后,丹麦物理学家路德维格·洛伦兹(Ludvig Lorenz, 1829-1891)没有将以太作为光波的载体,而是独立地发表了另一种基于光学方程和迟滞势的新思想的光的电学理论。尽管洛伦兹的理论建立在一个非常不同的概念基础上,但他得出的结果与麦克斯韦的几乎相同。但是,尽管麦克斯韦的场论预示着物理学的一场革命,洛伦兹的替代理论却在很大程度上被遗忘了,并很快沦为物理学史上的一个注脚。部分基于丹麦的档案材料和其他来源,本文提供了洛伦兹理论及其在物理界的接受的详细背景说明。此外,它还简要介绍了洛伦兹的其他科学贡献,并讨论了他的光电学理论未能引起严肃兴趣的原因。
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引用次数: 1
Celebrity Physicist: How the Press Sensationalized Einstein’s Search for a Unified Field Theory 著名物理学家:媒体如何轰动爱因斯坦对统一场论的研究
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-06-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0224-0
Paul Halpern

In Einstein’s later years, from the late 1920s onward, his reputation in the physics community as an innovator had faded as he pursued increasingly unrealistic unified field theories. Yet from the perspective of the press, his image and ideas were still marketable. We will see how his various attempts to craft a unified field theory generated numerous headlines, despite their lack of experimental evidence or even realistic solutions. We will examine how Einstein’s “latest theory,” became a much sought-after commodity used to generate interest in books, magazines, and newspapers.

在爱因斯坦的晚年,从20世纪20年代末开始,他在物理界作为创新者的声誉已经消退,因为他追求越来越不切实际的统一场论。然而,从媒体的角度来看,他的形象和思想仍然是有市场的。我们将看到,尽管缺乏实验证据,甚至没有现实的解决方案,但他对统一场论的各种尝试如何产生了无数的头条新闻。我们将研究爱因斯坦的“最新理论”是如何成为一种备受追捧的商品,用来引起人们对书籍、杂志和报纸的兴趣的。
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引用次数: 0
How Pressure Became a Scalar, Not a Vector 压强如何变成标量,而不是矢量
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-04-19 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0221-3
Alan Chalmers

The gradual emergence of a science of hydrostatics during the course of the seventeenth century is testament to the fact that a technical concept of pressure that was up to the task was far from obvious. The first published version of a theory of hydrostatics containing the essentials of the modern theory appeared in book 2 of Isaac Newton’s Principia. Newton derived the propositions of hydrostatics from a definition of a fluid as a medium unable to withstand a distorting force. Newton’s reasoning required that pressure be understood as a force per unit area acting on either side of imaginary planes within the body of a fluid. For a fluid in equilibrium, the forces at some location within a fluid are independent of the orientation of such planes. As Newton came to realize, within the body of a liquid, pressure acts equally in all directions so that there is no resultant pressing in any direction. Pressure has an intensity but not a direction. In modern terms, it is a scalar, not a vector. Although earlier scholars such as Simon Stevin, Blaise Pascal, and Robert Boyle helped set the scene for Newton’s innovations, they were unable to transcend the common sense of pressure as a directed force acting on the solid surfaces bounding a fluid.

17世纪流体静力学的逐渐出现证明了这样一个事实,即能够胜任这项任务的压力的技术概念远不是显而易见的。包含现代静力学基本要素的流体静力学理论的第一个出版版本出现在艾萨克·牛顿的《原理》第二卷中。牛顿将流体定义为一种不能承受扭曲力的介质,由此推导出流体静力学的命题。牛顿的推理要求将压力理解为单位面积上作用于流体内部假想平面两侧的力。对于处于平衡状态的流体,流体中某些位置的力与这些平面的方向无关。正如牛顿所认识到的,在液体体内,压力在各个方向上都是相等的,所以在任何方向上都不会产生合力。压力有强度,但没有方向。在现代术语中,它是一个标量,而不是一个向量。虽然早期的学者,如西蒙·斯蒂文、布莱斯·帕斯卡和罗伯特·波义耳为牛顿的创新奠定了基础,但他们无法超越压力是作用在固体表面上束缚流体的一种定向力的常识。
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引用次数: 0
When Science and Politics Collide 当科学与政治碰撞
IF 0.4 3区 哲学 Q4 HISTORY & PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Pub Date : 2018-04-11 DOI: 10.1007/s00016-018-0222-2
Robert P. Crease, Joseph D. Martin, Peter Pesic
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引用次数: 0
期刊
Physics in Perspective
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