While mobile genetic elements (MGEs) critically influence antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) dissemination, the regulatory role of bacteriophages as unique MGEs remains enigmatic in natural ecosystems. Through a global-scale phage-resistome interrogation spanning 840 groundwater metagenomes, we established a large aquifer resistome repository and uncovered three paradigm-shifting discoveries. First, phages harboured markedly fewer ARGs compared to plasmids and integrative elements, but their bacterial hosts paradoxically maintained the highest anti-phage defence gene inventories, showing an evolutionary equilibrium where investment in phage defence constrains ARG acquisition. Second, lytic phages demonstrated dual functionality characterized with directly suppressing ARG transmission through host lysis while indirectly enriching defence genes that inhibit horizontal gene transfer. Third, vertical inheritance sustained ARGs in 11.2% of MGE-free groundwater microbes. We further extended linkages between ARG profiles, phage defences and biogeochemical genes, revealing phage-mediated co-occurrence of ARGs and denitrification genes in shared hosts. These findings pioneer a phage-centric framework for resistome evolution, guiding phage-based ARG mitigation in groundwater ecosystems. Bacteriophages play a pivotal, yet poorly understood, role in shaping antibiotic resistance dynamics in natural environments. A global analysis of 840 groundwater metagenomes reveals that phage–host interactions constrain ARG acquisition via enhanced phage defence.
{"title":"Phage-mediated resistome dynamics in global aquifers","authors":"Huaiyu Cao, Songfeng Liu, Pinggui Cai, Pengwei Li, Jiawen Wang, Jinren Ni","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00558-w","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00558-w","url":null,"abstract":"While mobile genetic elements (MGEs) critically influence antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) dissemination, the regulatory role of bacteriophages as unique MGEs remains enigmatic in natural ecosystems. Through a global-scale phage-resistome interrogation spanning 840 groundwater metagenomes, we established a large aquifer resistome repository and uncovered three paradigm-shifting discoveries. First, phages harboured markedly fewer ARGs compared to plasmids and integrative elements, but their bacterial hosts paradoxically maintained the highest anti-phage defence gene inventories, showing an evolutionary equilibrium where investment in phage defence constrains ARG acquisition. Second, lytic phages demonstrated dual functionality characterized with directly suppressing ARG transmission through host lysis while indirectly enriching defence genes that inhibit horizontal gene transfer. Third, vertical inheritance sustained ARGs in 11.2% of MGE-free groundwater microbes. We further extended linkages between ARG profiles, phage defences and biogeochemical genes, revealing phage-mediated co-occurrence of ARGs and denitrification genes in shared hosts. These findings pioneer a phage-centric framework for resistome evolution, guiding phage-based ARG mitigation in groundwater ecosystems. Bacteriophages play a pivotal, yet poorly understood, role in shaping antibiotic resistance dynamics in natural environments. A global analysis of 840 groundwater metagenomes reveals that phage–host interactions constrain ARG acquisition via enhanced phage defence.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"4 1","pages":"78-90"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146027639","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00540-6
Robert W. Bruckmann, Philipp Sprengholz
As urban heat intensifies across Europe, cities are increasingly installing drinking fountains to secure public hydration access. However, psychological barriers may limit the strategy’s effectiveness. Here we show that pathogen-avoidance mechanisms are strongly associated with lifetime public drinking fountain use across German populations. Among elderly (n = 308) and representative general populations (n = 1,095), a standard deviation increase in contamination aversion was associated with 49% and 32% lower odds of ever using fountains. In a natural experiment across multiple drinking fountains (N = 14,128 encounters), signage communicating the fountains’ contamination safety was associated with 82% higher odds of direct drinking and 37% higher odds of cooling behaviours. Temporal point process modelling of usage time series revealed strong signatures of social amplification effects that were attenuated in the signage condition, indicating more independent, self-initiated rather than precursor-dependent usages. The findings highlight how psychological mechanisms interact with implementation strategies and should be considered in public infrastructure design. This study examines how users’ psychological mechanisms related to contamination concern could affect the use of public health infrastructure, including water fountains.
{"title":"Understanding and addressing contamination aversion in the use of drinking fountains","authors":"Robert W. Bruckmann, Philipp Sprengholz","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00540-6","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00540-6","url":null,"abstract":"As urban heat intensifies across Europe, cities are increasingly installing drinking fountains to secure public hydration access. However, psychological barriers may limit the strategy’s effectiveness. Here we show that pathogen-avoidance mechanisms are strongly associated with lifetime public drinking fountain use across German populations. Among elderly (n = 308) and representative general populations (n = 1,095), a standard deviation increase in contamination aversion was associated with 49% and 32% lower odds of ever using fountains. In a natural experiment across multiple drinking fountains (N = 14,128 encounters), signage communicating the fountains’ contamination safety was associated with 82% higher odds of direct drinking and 37% higher odds of cooling behaviours. Temporal point process modelling of usage time series revealed strong signatures of social amplification effects that were attenuated in the signage condition, indicating more independent, self-initiated rather than precursor-dependent usages. The findings highlight how psychological mechanisms interact with implementation strategies and should be considered in public infrastructure design. This study examines how users’ psychological mechanisms related to contamination concern could affect the use of public health infrastructure, including water fountains.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"4 1","pages":"36-43"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146027636","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00537-1
Damian R. Murray
Public fountains offer sustainable hydration under rising urban heat, but people often avoid them. Research now shows that contamination aversion reduces fountain use, while hygiene cues promote it.
{"title":"When clean isn’t enough","authors":"Damian R. Murray","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00537-1","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00537-1","url":null,"abstract":"Public fountains offer sustainable hydration under rising urban heat, but people often avoid them. Research now shows that contamination aversion reduces fountain use, while hygiene cues promote it.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"4 1","pages":"6-7"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146027626","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00542-4
Mengqing Fan, Qiang Xu, Xiaoxuan Wang, Zhiwei Fang, Mark C. M. van Loosdrecht, Martin Pabst, Yu Tao, Joan B. Rose, Walter van der Meer, Gang Liu
Fire hydrants are widely installed in drinking water distribution systems, where stagnant water forms multiple ‘high-risk zones’. The stagnant water quality at hydrant terminals has been poorly studied. Here we show that stagnant water exhibited an 18-fold increase in manganese, a 40-fold increase in total cell counts, a 13-fold increase in adenosine triphosphate and enrichment of opportunistic pathogens compared with flowing water. Notable changes were also observed in microbial communities and dissolved organic matter composition, including shifts in dominant bacterial taxa, transformation of saturated oxidized compounds and generation of unsaturated reduced compounds. This study also explored the ecological mechanisms underlying the covariation of microorganisms and dissolved organic matter after water stagnation. This finding provides an additional possibility for drinking water quality deterioration in drinking water distribution systems, highlighting the potential threat posed by stagnant water in non-consumer terminals (fire hydrants) to water safety. Fire hydrants can create stagnant zones in drinking water systems that degrade water quality. This study shows that stagnant water has much higher metal and microbial levels than flowing water, revealing distinct chemical and microbial shifts that may pose health risks.
{"title":"Coupled chemical–microbial deterioration in stagnant fire hydrant branches threatens drinking water quality","authors":"Mengqing Fan, Qiang Xu, Xiaoxuan Wang, Zhiwei Fang, Mark C. M. van Loosdrecht, Martin Pabst, Yu Tao, Joan B. Rose, Walter van der Meer, Gang Liu","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00542-4","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00542-4","url":null,"abstract":"Fire hydrants are widely installed in drinking water distribution systems, where stagnant water forms multiple ‘high-risk zones’. The stagnant water quality at hydrant terminals has been poorly studied. Here we show that stagnant water exhibited an 18-fold increase in manganese, a 40-fold increase in total cell counts, a 13-fold increase in adenosine triphosphate and enrichment of opportunistic pathogens compared with flowing water. Notable changes were also observed in microbial communities and dissolved organic matter composition, including shifts in dominant bacterial taxa, transformation of saturated oxidized compounds and generation of unsaturated reduced compounds. This study also explored the ecological mechanisms underlying the covariation of microorganisms and dissolved organic matter after water stagnation. This finding provides an additional possibility for drinking water quality deterioration in drinking water distribution systems, highlighting the potential threat posed by stagnant water in non-consumer terminals (fire hydrants) to water safety. Fire hydrants can create stagnant zones in drinking water systems that degrade water quality. This study shows that stagnant water has much higher metal and microbial levels than flowing water, revealing distinct chemical and microbial shifts that may pose health risks.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"4 1","pages":"44-57"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146027625","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00562-0
Weiyi Pan
Millions of fire hydrants in drinking water systems are rarely used, creating stagnant zones. A new study reveals these zones are breeding grounds for opportunistic pathogens and are governed by unique microbial–chemical interactions.
{"title":"The hidden microbial risk in fire hydrants","authors":"Weiyi Pan","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00562-0","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00562-0","url":null,"abstract":"Millions of fire hydrants in drinking water systems are rarely used, creating stagnant zones. A new study reveals these zones are breeding grounds for opportunistic pathogens and are governed by unique microbial–chemical interactions.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"4 1","pages":"8-9"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146027601","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-22DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00548-y
Gabriel C. Rau, Sebastian Gnann, Wouter R. Berghuijs, Mark O. Cuthbert
The various water fluxes of the global terrestrial water cycle are integral to the Earth system and the well-being of societies. However, fluxes occurring below the land surface, such as groundwater recharge and discharge, are more poorly constrained observationally than surface fluxes such as streamflow. Consequently, the broader relevance of these hidden fluxes is less well understood, and their global estimates are more uncertain. Here we combine multiple observational datasets and theoretical considerations within a Budyko-type water balance framework, providing a starting point for an enhanced understanding of subsurface water partitioning at large scales. Observations indicate that climatic aridity substantially influences subsurface flux partitioning, but that there is considerable variability in the need for further explanation. We show how this framework can be used to integrate empirical data, theoretical constraints and model-based insights to better understand subsurface flux partitioning and its controlling factors. Such a holistic approach is essential to better understand subsurface water cycling, especially in the face of increasing resource demands and climate change. Despite their importance to the Earth system and the well-being of societies, water fluxes occurring below the land surface are poorly constrained observationally and their global estimates remain uncertain. This Perspective proposes a framework that integrates different data sources with conceptual reasoning in order to better understand subsurface water cycling.
{"title":"Hidden flux partitioning in the global water cycle","authors":"Gabriel C. Rau, Sebastian Gnann, Wouter R. Berghuijs, Mark O. Cuthbert","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00548-y","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00548-y","url":null,"abstract":"The various water fluxes of the global terrestrial water cycle are integral to the Earth system and the well-being of societies. However, fluxes occurring below the land surface, such as groundwater recharge and discharge, are more poorly constrained observationally than surface fluxes such as streamflow. Consequently, the broader relevance of these hidden fluxes is less well understood, and their global estimates are more uncertain. Here we combine multiple observational datasets and theoretical considerations within a Budyko-type water balance framework, providing a starting point for an enhanced understanding of subsurface water partitioning at large scales. Observations indicate that climatic aridity substantially influences subsurface flux partitioning, but that there is considerable variability in the need for further explanation. We show how this framework can be used to integrate empirical data, theoretical constraints and model-based insights to better understand subsurface flux partitioning and its controlling factors. Such a holistic approach is essential to better understand subsurface water cycling, especially in the face of increasing resource demands and climate change. Despite their importance to the Earth system and the well-being of societies, water fluxes occurring below the land surface are poorly constrained observationally and their global estimates remain uncertain. This Perspective proposes a framework that integrates different data sources with conceptual reasoning in order to better understand subsurface water cycling.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"4 1","pages":"14-24"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146027629","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-17DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00567-9
Fabio Pulizzi
{"title":"Beware of the uncommon byproducts","authors":"Fabio Pulizzi","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00567-9","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00567-9","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"3 12","pages":"1343-1343"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145766371","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-17DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00568-8
Although it is widely recognized that safeguarding air, soil, and water is essential for protecting both animal and human health, efforts to protect the environment remain insufficient.
虽然人们普遍认识到，保护空气、土壤和水对于保护动物和人类健康至关重要，但保护环境的努力仍然不足。
{"title":"Good health starts with a healthy environment","authors":"","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00568-8","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00568-8","url":null,"abstract":"Although it is widely recognized that safeguarding air, soil, and water is essential for protecting both animal and human health, efforts to protect the environment remain insufficient.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"3 12","pages":"1333-1333"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.nature.comhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s44221-025-00568-8.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145766403","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1038/s44221-025-00553-1
Melanie Kah, Susan C. Wilson, Laura Carter
Soil carries out a diverse range of functions and provides critical services, without which human life would not be possible. The links between soil and water are intimate but insufficiently recognized. To understand how soil health underpins water quality, an integrated approach is needed that accounts for novel practices and emerging classes of micropollutants to minimize potential impacts on soil health, and ultimately water quality. This Review first sets the context and presents examples of micropollutant sources to soil, with a focus on resource reuse. We then discuss the dual roles of soil—as a potential source of contamination and as a filter that protects water resources from contamination—considering both relatively well-understood scenarios (for example, the application of pesticides) and emerging chemical threats (for example, pharmaceuticals and plastics). We conclude with recommendations linked to future policy and research agendas to adopt a truly ‘One Environment approach to One Health’ that fully recognizes the connections between environmental compartments including soil and water quality. Soil contamination has a huge effect on water quality. This Review first sets the context and presents examples of micropollutant sources to soil, with a focus on resource reuse.
{"title":"The fundamental role of healthy soil in maintaining water quality","authors":"Melanie Kah, Susan C. Wilson, Laura Carter","doi":"10.1038/s44221-025-00553-1","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s44221-025-00553-1","url":null,"abstract":"Soil carries out a diverse range of functions and provides critical services, without which human life would not be possible. The links between soil and water are intimate but insufficiently recognized. To understand how soil health underpins water quality, an integrated approach is needed that accounts for novel practices and emerging classes of micropollutants to minimize potential impacts on soil health, and ultimately water quality. This Review first sets the context and presents examples of micropollutant sources to soil, with a focus on resource reuse. We then discuss the dual roles of soil—as a potential source of contamination and as a filter that protects water resources from contamination—considering both relatively well-understood scenarios (for example, the application of pesticides) and emerging chemical threats (for example, pharmaceuticals and plastics). We conclude with recommendations linked to future policy and research agendas to adopt a truly ‘One Environment approach to One Health’ that fully recognizes the connections between environmental compartments including soil and water quality. Soil contamination has a huge effect on water quality. This Review first sets the context and presents examples of micropollutant sources to soil, with a focus on resource reuse.","PeriodicalId":74252,"journal":{"name":"Nature water","volume":"3 12","pages":"1365-1375"},"PeriodicalIF":24.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145766419","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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