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Pangenome analysis of Paenibacillus polymyxa strains reveals the existence of multiple and functionally distinct Paenibacillus species. 对多粘菌 Paenibacillus polymyxa 菌株进行的泛基因组分析表明,存在多个功能不同的 Paenibacillus 菌种。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-30 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01740-24
Federica Maggi, Anna Maria Giuliodori, Anna Brandi, Lucia Cimarelli, Roberto Alcántara, Stefano Pallotti, Consuelo Amantini, Dezemona Petrelli, Attilio Fabbretti, Roberto Spurio, Valerio Napolioni

Paenibacillus polymyxa, a Gram-positive bacterium commonly found in soil and plant roots, plays an important role in the environment due to its nitrogen-fixing ability and is renowned for producing antibiotics like polymyxin. In this study, we present a robust framework for investigating the evolutionary and taxonomic connections of strains belonging to P. polymyxa available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, as well as five new additional strains isolated at the University of Camerino (Italy), through pangenome analysis. These strains can produce secondary metabolites active against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Employing techniques such as digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH), average nucleotide identity (ANI) estimation, OrthoFinder, and ribosomal multilocus sequence typing, we consistently divided these P. polymyxa strains into four clusters, which differ significantly in terms of ANI and dDDH percentages, both considered as reference indices for separating bacterial species. Moreover, the strains of Cluster 2 were re-classified as belonging to the Paenibacillus ottowii species. By comparing the pangenomes, we identified the core genes of each cluster and analyzed them to recognize distinctive features in terms of biosynthetic/metabolic potential. The comparison of pangenomes also allowed us to pinpoint differences between clusters in terms of genetic variability and the percentage of the genome dedicated to core and accessory genes. In conclusion, the data obtained from our analyses of strains belonging to the P. polymyxa species converge toward a necessary reclassification, which will require a fundamental contribution from microbiologists in the near future.

Importance: The development of sequencing technologies has led to an exponential increase in microbial sequencing data. Accurately identifying bacterial species remains a challenge because of extensive intra-species variability, the need for multiple identification methods, and the rapid rate of taxonomic changes. A substantial contribution to elucidating the relationships among related bacterial strains comes from comparing their genomic sequences. This comparison also allows for the identification of the "pangenome," which is the set of genes shared by all individuals of a species, as well as the set of genes that are unique to subpopulations. Here, we applied this approach to Paenibacillus polymyxa, a species studied for its potential as a biofertilizer and biocontrol agent and known as an antibiotic producer. Our work highlights the need for a more efficient classification of this bacterial species and provides a better delineation of strains with different properties.

多粘杆菌(Paenibacillus polymyxa)是一种常见于土壤和植物根部的革兰氏阳性细菌,因其固氮能力而在环境中发挥着重要作用,并以生产多粘菌素等抗生素而闻名。在本研究中,我们提出了一个强大的框架,通过泛基因组分析,研究美国国家生物技术信息中心提供的多粘菌菌株以及卡梅里诺大学(意大利)分离的另外五株新菌株在进化和分类学上的联系。这些菌株能产生对金黄色葡萄球菌和肺炎克雷伯菌有活性的次级代谢物。利用数字 DNA-DNA 杂交(dDDH)、平均核苷酸同一性(ANI)估算、OrthoFinder 和核糖体多焦点序列分型等技术,我们一致地将这些多粘菌菌株分为四个簇,这四个簇在 ANI 和 dDDH 百分比(均被视为分离细菌物种的参考指标)方面存在显著差异。此外,簇 2 中的菌株被重新归类为属于 Paenibacillus ottowii 菌种。通过比较泛基因组,我们确定了每个群组的核心基因,并对其进行了分析,以识别其在生物合成/代谢潜力方面的显著特征。通过比较庞基因组,我们还能确定不同群组在遗传变异以及核心基因和附属基因在基因组中所占比例方面的差异。总之,我们对属于多粘菌属的菌株进行分析所获得的数据趋向于进行必要的重新分类,这需要微生物学家在不久的将来做出根本性的贡献:测序技术的发展导致微生物测序数据呈指数级增长。由于种内变异性大、需要多种鉴定方法以及分类变化速度快,准确鉴定细菌物种仍是一项挑战。比较相关细菌菌株的基因组序列有助于阐明它们之间的关系。通过比较还可以确定 "泛基因组",即一个物种所有个体共有的基因组,以及亚群特有的基因组。在这里,我们将这种方法应用于多粘毛芽孢杆菌(Paenibacillus polymyxa),该菌种因其具有生物肥料和生物控制剂的潜力而被研究,并以生产抗生素而闻名。我们的工作强调了对这种细菌进行更有效分类的必要性,并对具有不同特性的菌株进行了更好的划分。
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引用次数: 0
Asymptomatic bacteriuria screening for developing countries using a modified water quality test kit. 使用改良水质检测试剂盒为发展中国家筛查无症状菌尿。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-30 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01567-24
Jolie A Stocki, Rachel C Fleck, Ivy B Nguyen, Ryan Walde, Harry L T Mobley, Allyson E Shea

Between 2% and 15% of pregnant women unknowingly experience asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB), defined as ≥105 CFU per milliliter of urine in the absence of symptoms. ASB increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes including pyelonephritis, preterm labor, and low-birth weight infants. While pregnant women in the United States are routinely screened for ASB, those in developing countries with limited resources and funding lack an accurate mechanism for ASB screening. Aquagenx water quality test kits detect Escherichia coli, the most common causative agent of ASB, and total coliform bacteria in drinking water via colorimetric and fluorescent indicators. We found that the Aquagenx system is compatible with human urine and then proceeded to develop an ASB screening protocol using disposable inoculating loops. Our protocol diagnosed artificial ASB- samples (104 CFU/mL E. coli) with a false positive (FP) rate of 33% (n = 18) and ASB+ (105 CFU/mL E. coli) with a false negative (FN) rate of 5.6% (n = 18). Clinical sample testing with our protocol revealed a FP rate of 0% in ASB- samples (n = 28) and a FN rate of 0% in ASB+ samples caused by coliforms (n = 13). Aquagenx did not detect ASB in nine clinical samples with non-coliform etiological agents due to the limitations of the technology. However, with very high accuracy for detection of E. coli and other causative agents that collectively account for 90.1% of ASB cases, these kits could be used as a diagnostic ASB screening tool in developing countries in which there is currently no alternative to urine culture.IMPORTANCEAsymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) affects 2%-15% of pregnant women and can result in adverse maternal and fetal outcomes if left undetected and untreated. In the United States and other developed nations, pregnant women are regularly screened for ASB via urine culture. However, in low-resource countries where bacterial culture is not available, dipstick testing is used. Although accurate in cases of symptomatic bacteriuria, dipstick detection is ineffective for detecting ASB. Here, we made use of an existing water quality field test for ASB urine screening, which would be readily deployable in low-resource settings. We optimized a dilution protocol for sampling patient urine within the detection limits of the Aquagenx kit technology. Overall, we were able to detect ASB samples with Gram-negative pathogens that collectively account for 90% of all ASB cases. Utilization of this repurposed technology for proactive medical screening may help prevent adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes due to ASB.

2%到 15%的孕妇会在不知情的情况下出现无症状菌尿(ASB),无症状菌尿指的是在没有症状的情况下每毫升尿液中≥105 CFU。无症状菌尿会增加不良妊娠结局的风险,包括肾盂肾炎、早产和低体重儿。在美国,孕妇会定期接受 ASB 筛查,但在资源和资金有限的发展中国家,孕妇却缺乏准确的 ASB 筛查机制。Aquagenx 水质检测试剂盒通过比色法和荧光指示剂检测饮用水中的大肠杆菌(ASB 最常见的致病菌)和总大肠菌群。我们发现 Aquagenx 系统与人类尿液兼容,随后使用一次性接种环制定了 ASB 筛查方案。我们的方案对人工 ASB- 样品(104 CFU/mL 大肠杆菌)和 ASB+ 样品(105 CFU/mL 大肠杆菌)进行了诊断,前者的假阳性 (FP) 率为 33%(n = 18),后者的假阴性 (FN) 率为 5.6%(n = 18)。根据我们的方案进行的临床样本检测显示,由大肠菌群引起的 ASB- 样本的 FP 率为 0%(n = 28),ASB+ 样本的 FN 率为 0%(n = 13)。由于技术的局限性,Aquagenx 未在 9 份非大肠菌群致病菌的临床样本中检测出 ASB。然而,这些试剂盒对大肠杆菌和其他致病菌的检测准确率非常高,而大肠杆菌和其他致病菌合计占 ASB 病例的 90.1%,因此在目前没有尿培养替代品的发展中国家,这些试剂盒可用作诊断 ASB 的筛查工具。重要意义无症状性细菌尿(ASB)影响 2%-15% 的孕妇,如果未被发现和治疗,可导致不良的孕产妇和胎儿结局。在美国和其他发达国家,孕妇会定期通过尿液培养筛查无症状菌尿。然而,在无法进行细菌培养的资源匮乏国家,则使用浸量尺检测。虽然在无症状菌尿的情况下浸量棒检测是准确的,但在检测 ASB 方面效果不佳。在此,我们利用现有的水质现场检测方法来筛查 ASB 尿液,这种方法可随时用于低资源环境。我们对稀释方案进行了优化,以便在 Aquagenx 试剂盒技术的检测范围内对患者尿液进行采样。总体而言,我们能够检测出含有革兰氏阴性病原体的 ASB 样品,这些病原体占所有 ASB 病例的 90%。利用这种再利用技术进行前瞻性医疗筛查,有助于预防因 ASB 导致的不良妊娠和分娩后果。
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引用次数: 0
Identification and characterization of a novel formaldehyde dehydrogenase in Bacillus subtilis. 鉴定枯草芽孢杆菌中一种新型甲醛脱氢酶并确定其特性。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-29 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02181-23
Vivien Jessica Klein, Susanne Hansen Troøyen, Luciana Fernandes Brito, Gaston Courtade, Trygve Brautaset, Marta Irla

Formaldehyde is a known toxic compound, and functional formaldehyde detoxification is crucial for the survival of all living cells. Such detoxification systems are of particular importance for methylotrophic microorganisms that rely on formaldehyde as a central metabolite in their one-carbon metabolism. Understanding formaldehyde dissimilation pathways in non-methylotrophic industrial microorganisms is necessary for ongoing research aiming at engineering methylotrophy into their metabolism (synthetic methylotrophy). There is a variety of formaldehyde dissimilation pathways across microorganisms, often based on the activity of formaldehyde dehydrogenases. In this study, we investigated the role of the yycR gene of Bacillus subtilis putatively encoding a novel, uncharacterized zinc-type alcohol dehydrogenase-like protein. We showed that the B. subtilis ΔyycR mutant displayed a reduced formaldehyde tolerance level and confirmed the enzymatic activity of recombinantly produced and purified YycR as formaldehyde dehydrogenase in vitro. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that YycR activity is optimal at 40°C, with the highest measured activity at pH 9.5, formaldehyde is the preferred substrate, and the kinetic constants are Km of 0.19 ± 0.05 mM and Vmax of 2.24 ± 0.05 nmol min-1. Altogether, we showed that YycR is a novel formaldehyde dehydrogenase with a role in formaldehyde detoxification in B. subtilis, providing valuable insights for future research on synthetic methylotrophy in this organism.

Importance: Formaldehyde is a key metabolite in methanol assimilation for many methylotrophic microorganisms, and at the same time, it is toxic to all living cells, which means its intracellular concentrations must be tightly controlled. An in-depth understanding of methanol detoxification systems in industrially relevant microorganisms is a prerequisite for the introduction of methanol utilization pathways into their metabolism (synthetic methylotrophy). Bacillus subtilis, an industrial workhorse conventionally used for the production of enzymes, is known to possess two formaldehyde detoxification pathways. Here, we identify a novel formaldehyde dehydrogenase in this bacterium as a path towards creating innovative prospect strategies for strain engineering towards synthetic methylotrophy.

甲醛是一种已知的有毒化合物,功能性甲醛解毒对所有活细胞的生存都至关重要。这种解毒系统对于依赖甲醛作为其一碳代谢核心代谢物的养甲微生物尤为重要。了解非甲基营养型工业微生物的甲醛分解途径,对于正在进行的旨在将甲基营养工程纳入其代谢(合成甲基营养)的研究是必要的。微生物的甲醛分解途径多种多样,通常以甲醛脱氢酶的活性为基础。在本研究中,我们研究了枯草芽孢杆菌 yycR 基因的作用,该基因可能编码一种新型的、未定性的锌型醇脱氢酶样蛋白。我们发现枯草芽孢杆菌 ΔycR 突变体显示出较低的甲醛耐受水平,并在体外证实了重组生产和纯化的 YycR 作为甲醛脱氢酶的酶活性。生化分析表明,YycR在40℃时活性最佳,在pH值为9.5时活性最高,甲醛是首选底物,动力学常数为Km为0.19 ± 0.05 mM,Vmax为2.24 ± 0.05 nmol min-1。总之,我们发现 YycR 是一种新型甲醛脱氢酶,在枯草芽孢杆菌的甲醛解毒过程中发挥作用,为今后研究该生物的合成甲基营养提供了有价值的见解:甲醛是许多甲基营养微生物同化甲醇的关键代谢物,同时对所有活细胞都有毒性,这意味着必须严格控制其在细胞内的浓度。深入了解工业相关微生物的甲醇解毒系统是将甲醇利用途径引入其新陈代谢(合成甲营养)的先决条件。枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)是一种常用于生产酶的工业主力菌,已知它有两条甲醛解毒途径。在这里,我们在这种细菌中发现了一种新型甲醛脱氢酶,为菌株工程合成甲醇提供了一种创新的前景战略。
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引用次数: 0
Application of Raman spectroscopy and machine learning for Candida auris identification and characterization. 拉曼光谱和机器学习在白色念珠菌鉴定和表征中的应用
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-29 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01025-24
Junjing Xue, Huizhen Yue, Weilai Lu, Yanying Li, Guanghua Huang, Yu Vincent Fu

Candida auris, an emerging fungal pathogen characterized by multidrug resistance and high-mortality nosocomial infections, poses a serious global health threat. However, the precise and rapid identification and characterization of C. auris remain a challenge. Here, we employed Raman spectroscopy combined with machine learning to identify C. auris isolates and its closely related species as well as to predict antifungal resistance and key virulence factors at the single-cell level. The average accuracy of identification among all Candida species was 93.33%, with an accuracy of 98% for the clinically simulated samples. The drug susceptibility of C. auris to fluconazole and amphotericin B was 99% and 94%, respectively. Furthermore, the phenotypic prediction of C. auris yielded an accuracy of 100% for aggregating cells and 97% for filamentous cells. This proof-of-concept methodology not only precisely identifies C. auris at the clade-specific level but also rapidly predicts the antifungal resistance and biological characteristics, promising a valuable medical diagnostic tool to combat this multidrug-resistant pathogen in the future.

Importance: Currently, combating Candida auris infections and transmission is challenging due to the lack of efficient identification and characterization methods for this species. To address these challenges, our study presents a novel approach that utilizes Raman spectroscopy and artificial intelligence to achieve precise identification and characterization of C. auris at the singe-cell level. It can accurately identify a single cell from the four C. auris clades. Additionally, we developed machine learning models designed to detect antifungal resistance in C. auris cells and differentiate between two distinct phenotypes based on the single-cell Raman spectrum. We also constructed prediction models for detecting aggregating and filamentous cells in C. auris, both of which are closely linked to its virulence. These results underscore the merits of Raman spectroscopy in the identification and characterization of C. auris, promising improved outcomes in the battle against C. auris infections and transmission.

白色念珠菌是一种新出现的真菌病原体,其特点是具有多重耐药性和高死亡率的院内感染,对全球健康构成严重威胁。然而,如何精确、快速地识别和鉴定白色念珠菌仍是一项挑战。在这里,我们采用拉曼光谱与机器学习相结合的方法来鉴定 Cullis 及其近缘种,并在单细胞水平上预测抗真菌耐药性和关键毒力因子。所有念珠菌物种的平均鉴定准确率为 93.33%,临床模拟样本的准确率为 98%。念珠菌对氟康唑和两性霉素 B 的药物敏感性分别为 99% 和 94%。此外,对阿氏杆菌的表型预测结果显示,聚集细胞的准确率为 100%,丝状细胞的准确率为 97%。这一概念验证方法不仅能在支系特异性水平上精确鉴定念珠菌,还能快速预测其抗真菌耐药性和生物学特征,有望成为未来对抗这种耐多药病原体的重要医疗诊断工具:目前,由于缺乏有效的鉴定和表征方法,抗击白色念珠菌感染和传播具有挑战性。为了应对这些挑战,我们的研究提出了一种新方法,利用拉曼光谱和人工智能在单细胞水平上实现对念珠菌的精确鉴定和表征。它可以从四个 C. auris 支系中准确识别单细胞。此外,我们还开发了机器学习模型,旨在检测 C. auris 细胞的抗真菌耐药性,并根据单细胞拉曼光谱区分两种不同的表型。我们还构建了用于检测 C. auris 中聚集细胞和丝状细胞的预测模型,这两种细胞都与 C. auris 的毒力密切相关。这些结果凸显了拉曼光谱在鉴定和表征法氏囊虫方面的优势,有望在抗击法氏囊虫感染和传播的斗争中取得更好的成果。
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引用次数: 0
Cyanobacteria newly isolated from marine volcanic seeps display rapid sinking and robust, high-density growth. 新近从海洋火山渗流中分离出来的蓝藻显示出快速下沉和强劲的高密度生长。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-29 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00841-24
Max G Schubert, Tzu-Chieh Tang, Isabella M Goodchild-Michelman, Krista A Ryon, James R Henriksen, Theodore Chavkin, Yanqi Wu, Teemu P Miettinen, Stefanie Van Wychen, Lukas R Dahlin, Davide Spatafora, Gabriele Turco, Michael T Guarnieri, Scott R Manalis, John Kowitz, Elizabeth C Hann, Raja Dhir, Paola Quatrini, Christopher E Mason, George M Church, Marco Milazzo, Braden T Tierney

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic organisms that play important roles in carbon cycling and are promising bioproduction chassis. Here, we isolate two novel cyanobacteria with 4.6Mbp genomes, UTEX 3221 and UTEX 3222, from a unique marine environment with naturally elevated CO₂. We describe complete genome sequences for both isolates and, focusing on UTEX 3222 due to its planktonic growth in liquid, characterize biotechnologically relevant growth and biomass characteristics. UTEX 3222 outpaces other fast-growing model strains on a solid medium. It can double every 2.35 hours in a liquid medium and grows to high density (>31 g/L biomass dry weight) in batch culture, nearly double that of Synechococcus sp. PCC 11901, whose high-density growth was recently reported. In addition, UTEX 3222 sinks readily, settling more quickly than other fast-growing strains, suggesting favorable economics of harvesting UTEX 3222 biomass. These traits may make UTEX 3222 a compelling choice for marine carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and photosynthetic bioproduction from CO₂. Overall, we find that bio-prospecting in environments with naturally elevated CO₂ may uncover novel CO₂-metabolizing organisms with unique characteristics.

Importance: Cyanobacteria provide a potential avenue for both biomanufacturing and combatting climate change via high-efficiency photosynthetic carbon sequestration. This study identifies novel photosynthetic organisms isolated from a unique geochemical environment and describes their genomes, growth behavior in culture, and biochemical composition. These cyanobacteria appear to make a tractable research model, and cultures are made publicly available alongside information about their culture and maintenance. Application of these organisms to carbon sequestration and/or biomanufacturing is discussed, including unusual, rapid settling characteristics of the strains relevant to scaled culture.

蓝藻是一种光合生物,在碳循环中发挥着重要作用,是很有前途的生物生产底盘。在这里,我们从二氧化碳自然升高的独特海洋环境中分离出了两种基因组为 4.6Mbp 的新型蓝藻--UTEX 3221 和 UTEX 3222。我们描述了这两个分离物的完整基因组序列,并重点介绍了UTEX 3222(因其在液体中浮游生长)的生物技术相关生长和生物量特征。UTEX 3222 的生长速度超过了其他在固体培养基上快速生长的模式菌株。它能在液体培养基中每 2.35 小时翻一番,并在批量培养中达到高密度生长(>31 克/升生物量干重),几乎是 Synechococcus sp.此外,UTEX 3222 很容易下沉,沉降速度比其他快速生长的菌株更快,这表明收获 UTEX 3222 的生物量具有良好的经济效益。这些特性可能会使UTEX 3222 成为海洋二氧化碳去除(CDR)和二氧化碳光合生物生产的理想选择。总之,我们发现,在二氧化碳自然升高的环境中进行生物勘探,可能会发现具有独特特征的新型二氧化碳代谢生物:蓝藻为生物制造和通过高效光合固碳应对气候变化提供了潜在途径。本研究发现了从独特的地球化学环境中分离出来的新型光合生物,并描述了它们的基因组、培养生长行为和生化成分。这些蓝藻似乎是一种可操作的研究模型,其培养物及其培养和维护信息均可公开获取。文章讨论了这些生物在碳封存和/或生物制造中的应用,包括与规模化培养相关的菌株的不寻常、快速沉降特性。
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引用次数: 0
Environment, plant genetics, and their interaction shape important aspects of sunflower rhizosphere microbial communities. 环境、植物遗传及其相互作用塑造了向日葵根瘤微生物群落的重要方面。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01635-24
Clifton P Bueno de Mesquita, Corinne M Walsh, Ziv Attia, Brady D Koehler, Zachary J Tarble, David L Van Tassel, Nolan C Kane, Brent S Hulke

Associations with soil microorganisms are crucial for plants' overall health and functioning. While much work has been done to understand drivers of rhizosphere microbiome structure and function, the relative importance of geography, climate, soil properties, and plant genetics remains unclear, as results have been mixed and comprehensive studies across many sites and genotypes are limited. Rhizosphere microbiomes are crucial for crop resistance to pathogens, stress tolerance, nutrient availability, and ultimately yield. Here, we quantify the relative roles of plant genotype, environment, and their interaction in shaping soil rhizosphere communities, using 16S and ITS gene sequencing of rhizosphere soils from 10 genotypes of cultivated sunflower (Helianthus annuus) at 15 sites across the Great Plains of the United States. While site generally outweighed genotype overall in terms of effects on archaeal, bacterial, and fungal richness, community composition, and taxa relative abundances, there was also a significant interaction such that genotype exerted a significant influence on archaeal, bacterial, and fungal microbiomes in certain sites. Site effects were attributed to a combination of spatial distance and differences in climate and soil properties. Microbial taxa that were previously associated with resistance to the fungal necrotrophic pathogen Sclerotinia were present in most sites but differed significantly in relative abundance across sites. Our results have implications for plant breeding and agronomic microbiome manipulations for agricultural improvement across different geographic regions.IMPORTANCEDespite the importance of plant breeding in agriculture, we still have a limited understanding of how plant genetic variation shapes soil microbiome composition across broad geographic regions. Using 15 sites across the Great Plains of North America, we show that cultivated sunflower rhizosphere archaeal, bacterial, and fungal communities are driven primarily by site soil and climatic differences, but genotype can interact with site to influence the composition, especially in warmer and drier sites with lower overall microbial richness. We also show that all taxa that were previously found to be associated with resistance to the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum were widespread but significantly affected by site, while a subset was also significantly affected by genotype. Our results contribute to a broader understanding of rhizosphere archaeal, bacterial, and fungal community assembly and provide foundational knowledge for plant breeding efforts and potential future microbiome manipulations in agriculture.

与土壤微生物的联系对植物的整体健康和功能至关重要。虽然已经做了很多工作来了解根瘤菌群结构和功能的驱动因素,但地理、气候、土壤特性和植物遗传学的相对重要性仍不清楚,因为结果参差不齐,对许多地点和基因型的全面研究也很有限。根瘤微生物组对作物抵抗病原体、抗逆性、养分供应以及最终产量至关重要。在这里,我们利用 16S 和 ITS 基因测序技术,对美国大平原 15 个地点 10 种基因型的向日葵(Helianthus annuus)根瘤土壤进行了研究,量化了植物基因型、环境及其相互作用在形成土壤根瘤群落中的相对作用。就对古细菌、细菌和真菌丰富度、群落组成和类群相对丰度的影响而言,地点总体上大于基因型,但也存在显著的交互作用,即基因型对某些地点的古细菌、细菌和真菌微生物群有显著影响。地点效应归因于空间距离以及气候和土壤特性的差异。以前与抵抗真菌坏死性病原体 Sclerotinia 有关的微生物类群出现在大多数地点,但不同地点的相对丰度有显著差异。重要意义尽管植物育种在农业中非常重要,但我们对植物遗传变异如何影响不同地理区域土壤微生物组组成的了解仍然有限。我们利用横跨北美大平原的 15 个地点研究表明,栽培向日葵根瘤菌群落中的古细菌、细菌和真菌群落主要受地点土壤和气候差异的影响,但基因型会与地点相互作用,影响微生物群落的组成,尤其是在微生物总体丰富度较低的温暖干燥地点。我们的研究还表明,以前发现的与真菌病原体硬孢菌抗性相关的所有类群都很普遍,但受地点的影响很大,而一个子集也受基因型的显著影响。我们的研究结果有助于人们更广泛地了解根瘤菌圈古细菌、细菌和真菌群落的组成,并为植物育种工作和未来在农业中潜在的微生物组操作提供了基础知识。
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引用次数: 0
Purified diets containing high levels of soluble fiber and grain-based diets promote similar gastrointestinal morphometry yet distinct microbial communities. 含有大量可溶性纤维的纯化膳食和谷物膳食能促进相似的胃肠道形态测量,但微生物群落却截然不同。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01552-24
Elaine M Glenny, Jintong Liu, Harlyn G Skinner, Tori L McFarlane, Kylie K Reed, Alyssa Weninger, Zorka Djukic, Michael A Pellizzon, Ian M Carroll

Dietary fibers play a crucial role in shaping the gut microbiome and influencing gastrointestinal (GI) physiology. Grain-based diets (GBDs) are widely used in rodent studies, but their utility is limited due to batch-to-batch variability resulting from inconsistent ingredients. Purified diets (PDs) are composed of only known and refined ingredients and offer a solution to the constraints of GBDs. This study aimed to identify a combination of dietary fibers in a purified diet (PD) that promotes optimal murine gut morphometry and a diverse intestinal microbial community. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed either two grain-based diets (GBDs) or four PDs with varying fiber compositions for 28 days. Mice consuming PDs lacking soluble fiber had more gonadal fat (P < 0.05), shorter small intestines (P < 0.05), and lighter ceca (P < 0.05) compared with those fed the LabDiet 5001 GBD. Increasing the proportion of soluble fibers in PDs progressively reduced microbial diversity in the cecum and colon. Multidimensional scaling analysis revealed distinct microbial communities in the cecum and colon between mice fed GBDs and PDs (P < 0.05). Differential abundance analysis identified relatively more Family XII UCG 001 and less Lactococcus in mice fed GBDs relative to mice consuming PDs (P < 0.05). While no PD recapitulated the gut microbial composition of GBDs, PDs with high soluble fiber content best preserved GI morphometry. These findings underscore the importance of considering diet as an experimental variable and highlight the need for a PD formulation that combines the benefits of GBDs on GI health and microbial richness.

Importance: Dietary fibers are essential for maintaining gut health. Insoluble fibers aid in fecal bulking and water retention while soluble fiber is a fermentative substrate for intestinal microbial communities. Grain-based diets (GBDs) are commonly used in preclinical research but the variability in ingredients across batches impedes reproducibility. Purified diets (PDs), which are composed of highly refined ingredients, pose a potential solution but the most widely used low-fat control PDs contain no soluble fiber. This study intended to identify a PD with a combination of fibers that promotes murine gut health and microbial diversity. A PD with optimal fiber composition would aid in the standardization and reproducibility of studies investigating intestinal physiology and the gut microbiota.

膳食纤维在塑造肠道微生物组和影响胃肠道(GI)生理学方面发挥着至关重要的作用。谷物日粮(GBDs)被广泛用于啮齿动物研究,但由于成分不一致造成的批次间差异,其实用性受到限制。纯化日粮(PDs)仅由已知的精制成分组成,为解决 GBDs 的局限性提供了一种解决方案。本研究旨在确定纯化日粮(PD)中膳食纤维的组合,以促进小鼠肠道形态的优化和肠道微生物群落的多样化。雄性 C57BL/6J 小鼠连续 28 天食用两种谷物日粮(GBD)或四种不同纤维成分的纯化日粮。与喂食LabDiet 5001 GBD的小鼠相比,摄入缺乏可溶性纤维的PD的小鼠性腺脂肪较多(P < 0.05),小肠较短(P < 0.05),盲肠较轻(P < 0.05)。PDs中可溶性纤维比例的增加会逐渐减少盲肠和结肠中微生物的多样性。多维尺度分析显示,喂食 GBD 和 PD 的小鼠盲肠和结肠中的微生物群落截然不同(P < 0.05)。差异丰度分析发现,相对于摄入PDs的小鼠,摄入GBDs的小鼠体内乳球菌相对较多,而摄入GBDs的小鼠体内乳球菌相对较少(P < 0.05)。虽然没有一种持久性有机污染物能重现 GBDs 的肠道微生物组成,但可溶性纤维含量高的持久性有机污染物最能保持肠道形态。这些发现强调了将饮食作为一个实验变量的重要性,并突出了需要一种结合了 GBDs 对胃肠道健康和微生物丰富性益处的 PD 配方:膳食纤维对维持肠道健康至关重要。不溶性纤维有助于粪便膨胀和水分保持,而可溶性纤维则是肠道微生物群落的发酵底物。以谷物为基础的日粮 (GBD) 通常用于临床前研究,但不同批次的成分存在差异,这妨碍了可重复性。由高度精制成分组成的纯化日粮(PDs)是一种潜在的解决方案,但最广泛使用的低脂对照 PDs 不含可溶性纤维。本研究旨在确定一种含有多种纤维的纯化日粮,以促进小鼠肠道健康和微生物多样性。具有最佳纤维成分的PD将有助于肠道生理学和肠道微生物群研究的标准化和可重复性。
{"title":"Purified diets containing high levels of soluble fiber and grain-based diets promote similar gastrointestinal morphometry yet distinct microbial communities.","authors":"Elaine M Glenny, Jintong Liu, Harlyn G Skinner, Tori L McFarlane, Kylie K Reed, Alyssa Weninger, Zorka Djukic, Michael A Pellizzon, Ian M Carroll","doi":"10.1128/aem.01552-24","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01552-24","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Dietary fibers play a crucial role in shaping the gut microbiome and influencing gastrointestinal (GI) physiology. Grain-based diets (GBDs) are widely used in rodent studies, but their utility is limited due to batch-to-batch variability resulting from inconsistent ingredients. Purified diets (PDs) are composed of only known and refined ingredients and offer a solution to the constraints of GBDs. This study aimed to identify a combination of dietary fibers in a purified diet (PD) that promotes optimal murine gut morphometry and a diverse intestinal microbial community. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed either two grain-based diets (GBDs) or four PDs with varying fiber compositions for 28 days. Mice consuming PDs lacking soluble fiber had more gonadal fat (<i>P</i> < 0.05), shorter small intestines (<i>P</i> < 0.05), and lighter ceca (<i>P</i> < 0.05) compared with those fed the LabDiet 5001 GBD. Increasing the proportion of soluble fibers in PDs progressively reduced microbial diversity in the cecum and colon. Multidimensional scaling analysis revealed distinct microbial communities in the cecum and colon between mice fed GBDs and PDs (<i>P</i> < 0.05). Differential abundance analysis identified relatively more <i>Family XII UCG 001</i> and less <i>Lactococcus</i> in mice fed GBDs relative to mice consuming PDs (<i>P</i> < 0.05). While no PD recapitulated the gut microbial composition of GBDs, PDs with high soluble fiber content best preserved GI morphometry. These findings underscore the importance of considering diet as an experimental variable and highlight the need for a PD formulation that combines the benefits of GBDs on GI health and microbial richness.</p><p><strong>Importance: </strong>Dietary fibers are essential for maintaining gut health. Insoluble fibers aid in fecal bulking and water retention while soluble fiber is a fermentative substrate for intestinal microbial communities. Grain-based diets (GBDs) are commonly used in preclinical research but the variability in ingredients across batches impedes reproducibility. Purified diets (PDs), which are composed of highly refined ingredients, pose a potential solution but the most widely used low-fat control PDs contain no soluble fiber. This study intended to identify a PD with a combination of fibers that promotes murine gut health and microbial diversity. A PD with optimal fiber composition would aid in the standardization and reproducibility of studies investigating intestinal physiology and the gut microbiota.</p>","PeriodicalId":8002,"journal":{"name":"Applied and Environmental Microbiology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-10-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142493388","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Targeted discovery of polyketides with antioxidant activity through integrated omics and cocultivation strategies. 通过综合全息和共培养策略,有针对性地发现具有抗氧化活性的多酮类化合物。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01603-24
Cancan Wang, Chenjie Wang, Yanjun Liu, Yujie Yue, Xingyue Lu, Hong Wang, Youmin Ying, Jianwei Chen

Fungi generate a diverse array of bioactive compounds with significant pharmaceutical applications. However, the chemical diversity of natural products in fungi remains largely unexplored. Here, we present a paradigm for specifically discovering diverse and bioactive compounds from fungi by integrating genome mining with building block molecular network and coculture analysis. Through pangenome and sequence similarity network analysis, we identified a rare type I polyketide enzyme from Penicillium sp. ZJUT-34. Subsequent building block molecular network and coculture strategy led to the identification and isolation of a pair of novel polyketides, (±)-peniphenone E [(±)-1], three known polyketides (2-4), and three precursor compounds (5-7) from a combined culture of Penicillium sp. ZJUT-34 and Penicillium sp. ZJUT23. Their structures were established through extensive spectroscopic analysis, including NMR and HRESIMS. Chiral HPLC separation of compound 1 yielded a pair of enantiomers (+)-1 and (-)-1, with their absolute configurations determined using calculated ECD methods. Compound (±)-1 is notable for its unprecedented structure, featuring a unique 2-methyl-hexenyl-3-one moiety fused with a polyketide clavatol core. We proposed a hypothetical biosynthetic pathway for (±)-1. Furthermore, compounds 2, 5, and 6 exhibited strong antioxidant activity, whereas (-)-1, (+)-1, 3, and four exhibited moderate antioxidant activity compared to the positive control, ascorbic acid. Our research demonstrates a pioneering strategy for uncovering novel polyketides by merging genome mining, metabolomics, and cocultivation methods. This approach addresses the challenge of discovering natural compounds produced by rare biosynthetic enzymes that are often silent under conventional conditions due to gene regulation.IMPORTANCEPolyketides, particularly those with complex structures, are crucial in drug development and synthesis. This study introduces a novel approach to discover new polyketides by integrating genomics, metabolomics, and cocultivation strategies. By combining genome mining, building block molecular networks, and coculturing techniques, we identified and isolated a unique polyketide, (±)-peniphenone E, along with three known polyketides and three precursor compounds from Penicillium sp. ZJUT-34 and Penicillium sp. ZJUT23. This approach highlights the potential of using combined strategies to explore fungal chemical diversity and discover novel bioactive compounds. The successful identification of (±)-peniphenone E, with its distinctive structure, demonstrates the effectiveness of this integrated method in enhancing natural product discovery and underscores the value of innovative approaches in natural product research.

真菌可产生多种多样的生物活性化合物,具有重要的医药应用价值。然而,真菌中天然产物的化学多样性在很大程度上仍未得到开发。在这里,我们介绍了一种通过整合基因组挖掘、构件分子网络和共培养分析,从真菌中专门发现多样化生物活性化合物的范例。通过泛基因组和序列相似性网络分析,我们从青霉 ZJUT-34 中发现了一种罕见的 I 型多酮酶。随后,通过构建分子网络和共培养策略,我们从青霉菌 ZJUT-34 和青霉菌 ZJUT23 的联合培养物中鉴定并分离出了一对新的多酮类化合物 (±)-peniphenone E [(±)-1] 、三种已知的多酮类化合物 (2-4) 以及三种前体化合物 (5-7)。通过广泛的光谱分析,包括核磁共振和 HRESIMS,确定了这些化合物的结构。化合物 1 的手性 HPLC 分离得到了一对对映体 (+)-1 和 (-)-1,并通过计算的 ECD 方法确定了它们的绝对构型。化合物(±)-1以其前所未有的结构而著称,其独特的2-甲基己烯-3-酮分子与一个多酮类化合物克拉瓦托醇核心融合在一起。我们提出了(±)-1的假设生物合成途径。此外,与阳性对照抗坏血酸相比,化合物 2、5 和 6 表现出很强的抗氧化活性,而 (-)-1、(+)-1、3 和 4 则表现出中等程度的抗氧化活性。我们的研究展示了一种融合基因组挖掘、代谢组学和共培养方法来发现新型多酮化合物的开创性策略。这种方法解决了发现由稀有生物合成酶产生的天然化合物的难题,而在传统条件下,这些生物合成酶往往由于基因调控而处于沉默状态。本研究介绍了一种通过整合基因组学、代谢组学和共培养策略来发现新多酮类化合物的新方法。通过将基因组挖掘、构件分子网络和共培养技术相结合,我们从青霉 ZJUT-34 和青霉 ZJUT23 中鉴定并分离出了一种独特的多酮类化合物 (±)-peniphenone E,以及三种已知的多酮类化合物和三种前体化合物。这种方法凸显了利用组合策略探索真菌化学多样性和发现新型生物活性化合物的潜力。具有独特结构的 (±)-peniphenone E 的成功鉴定证明了这种综合方法在促进天然产物发现方面的有效性,并强调了创新方法在天然产物研究中的价值。
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引用次数: 0
The structure of lipopeptides impacts their antiviral activity and mode of action against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. 脂肽的结构影响其体外对 SARS-CoV-2 的抗病毒活性和作用模式。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01036-24
Alexis C R Hoste, Willy Smeralda, Aurélien Cugnet, Yves Brostaux, Magali Deleu, Mutien Garigliany, Philippe Jacques

Microbial lipopeptides are synthesized by nonribosomal peptide synthetases and are composed of a hydrophobic fatty acid chain and a hydrophilic peptide moiety. These structurally diverse amphiphilic molecules can interact with biological membranes and possess various biological activities, including antiviral properties. This study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity and antiviral activity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) of 15 diverse lipopeptides to understand their structure-activity relationships. Non-ionic lipopeptides were generally more cytotoxic than charged ones, with cationic lipopeptides being less cytotoxic than anionic and non-ionic variants. At 100 µg/mL, six lipopeptides reduced SARS-CoV-2 RNA to undetectable levels in infected Vero E6 cells, while six others achieved a 2.5- to 4.1-log reduction, and three had no significant effect. Surfactin, white line-inducing principle (WLIP), fengycin, and caspofungin emerged as the most promising anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents. Detailed analysis revealed that these four lipopeptides affected various stages of the viral life cycle involving the viral envelope. Surfactin and WLIP significantly reduced viral RNA levels in replication assays, comparable to neutralizing serum. Surfactin uniquely inhibited viral budding, while fengycin impacted viral binding after pre-infection treatment of the cells. Caspofungin demonstrated a lower antiviral effect compared to the others. Key structural traits of lipopeptides influencing their cytotoxic and antiviral activities were identified. Lipopeptides with a high number of amino acids, especially charged (preferentially anionic) amino acids, showed potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity. This research paves the way for designing new lipopeptides with low cytotoxicity and high antiviral efficacy, potentially leading to effective treatments.

Importance: This study advances our understanding of how lipopeptides, which are molecules mostly produced by bacteria, with both fat and protein components, can be used to fight viruses like severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). By analyzing 15 different lipopeptides, researchers identified key structural features that make some of these molecules particularly effective at reducing viral levels while being less harmful to cells. Specifically, lipopeptides with certain charged amino acids were found to have the strongest antiviral effects. This research lays the groundwork for developing new antiviral treatments that are both potent against viruses and safe for human cells, offering hope for better therapeutic options in the future.

微生物脂肽由非核糖体肽合成酶合成,由疏水脂肪酸链和亲水肽分子组成。这些结构多样的两亲分子可与生物膜相互作用,具有多种生物活性,包括抗病毒特性。本研究旨在评估 15 种不同脂肽对严重急性呼吸系统综合征冠状病毒 2(SARS-CoV-2)的细胞毒性和抗病毒活性,以了解它们的结构-活性关系。非离子脂肽的细胞毒性普遍高于带电脂肽,阳离子脂肽的细胞毒性低于阴离子和非离子变体。在 100 微克/毫升的浓度下,六种脂肽能使受感染的 Vero E6 细胞中的 SARS-CoV-2 RNA 降低到检测不到的水平,其他六种脂肽能使 RNA 降低 2.5 到 4.1 个菌落,三种脂肽没有明显效果。舒伐他汀、白线诱导原理(WLIP)、芬吉霉素和卡泊芬净成为最有希望的抗 SARS-CoV-2 药物。详细分析显示,这四种脂肽对涉及病毒包膜的病毒生命周期的各个阶段都有影响。在复制试验中,表面活性剂和 WLIP 能显著降低病毒 RNA 水平,与中和血清的效果相当。表面活性剂独特地抑制了病毒的出芽,而芬吉星则在细胞感染前处理后影响了病毒的结合。与其他药物相比,卡泊芬净的抗病毒效果较低。研究发现了影响脂肽细胞毒性和抗病毒活性的关键结构特征。含有大量氨基酸,特别是带电荷(阴离子优先)氨基酸的脂肽具有很强的抗 SARS-CoV-2 活性。这项研究为设计具有低细胞毒性和高抗病毒效力的新型脂肽铺平了道路,从而有可能开发出有效的治疗方法:这项研究加深了我们对脂肽如何用于抗击严重急性呼吸系统综合症冠状病毒2(SARS-CoV-2)等病毒的认识。脂肽是一种主要由细菌产生的分子,其中既有脂肪成分,也有蛋白质成分。通过分析15种不同的脂肽,研究人员发现了一些关键的结构特征,这些特征使得其中一些分子在降低病毒水平方面特别有效,同时对细胞的伤害较小。具体来说,研究人员发现含有某些带电氨基酸的脂肽具有最强的抗病毒效果。这项研究为开发既能有效抗病毒又对人体细胞安全的新型抗病毒疗法奠定了基础,为未来提供更好的治疗方案带来了希望。
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引用次数: 0
Myxococcus xanthus fruiting body morphology is important for spore recovery after exposure to environmental stress. 黄曲霉菌子实体形态对暴露于环境压力后的孢子恢复非常重要。
IF 3.9 2区 生物学 Q2 BIOTECHNOLOGY & APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-23 Epub Date: 2024-10-04 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01660-24
Dave Lall, Maike M Glaser, Penelope I Higgs

Environmental microorganisms have evolved a variety of strategies to survive fluctuations in environmental conditions, including the production of biofilms and differentiation into spores. Myxococcus xanthus are ubiquitous soil bacteria that produce starvation-induced multicellular fruiting bodies filled with environmentally resistant spores (a specialized biofilm). Isolated spores have been shown to be more resistant than vegetative cells to heat, ultraviolet radiation, and desiccation. The evolutionary advantage of producing spores inside fruiting bodies is not clear. Here, we examine a hypothesis that the fruiting body provides additional protection from environmental insults. We developed a high-throughput method to compare the recovery (outgrowth) of distinct cell types (vegetative cells, free spores, and spores within intact fruiting bodies) after exposure to ultraviolet radiation or desiccation. Our data indicate that haystack-shaped fruiting bodies protect spores from extended UV radiation but do not provide additional protection from desiccation. Perturbation of fruiting body morphology strongly impedes recovery from both UV exposure and desiccation. These results hint that the distinctive fruiting bodies produced by different myxobacterial species may have evolved to optimize their persistence in distinct ecological niches.IMPORTANCEEnvironmental microorganisms play an important role in the production of greenhouse gases that contribute to changing climate conditions. It is imperative to understand how changing climate conditions feedback to influence environmental microbial communities. The myxobacteria are environmentally ubiquitous social bacteria that influence the local microbial community composition. Defining how these bacteria are affected by environmental insults is a necessary component of predicting climatic feedback effects. When starved, myxobacteria produce multicellular fruiting bodies filled with spores. As spores are resistant to a variety of environmental insults, the evolutionary advantage of building a fruiting body is not clear. Using the model myxobacterium, Myxococcus xanthus, we demonstrate that the tall, haystack-shaped fruiting body morphology enables significantly more resistance to UV exposure than the free spores. In contrast, fruiting bodies are slightly detrimental to recovery from extended desiccation, an effect that is strongly exaggerated if fruiting body morphology is perturbed. These results suggest that the variety of fruiting body morphologies observed in the myxobacteria may dictate their relative resistance to changing climate conditions.

环境微生物进化出了多种策略来应对环境条件的波动,包括生成生物膜和分化成孢子。黄曲霉菌是一种无处不在的土壤细菌,会在饥饿状态下产生多细胞子实体,子实体中充满了耐环境的孢子(一种特殊的生物膜)。研究表明,分离的孢子比无性细胞更耐高温、紫外线辐射和干燥。在子实体内产生孢子的进化优势尚不清楚。在此,我们研究了一个假设,即子实体可提供额外的保护,使孢子免受环境侵害。我们开发了一种高通量方法来比较不同细胞类型(无性细胞、游离孢子和完整子实体内的孢子)在暴露于紫外线辐射或干燥后的恢复(生长)情况。我们的数据表明,干草堆状子实体能保护孢子免受长时间的紫外线辐射,但不能提供额外的干燥保护。干扰子实体形态会严重阻碍孢子从紫外线照射和干燥中恢复。这些结果表明,不同种类的霉菌所产生的独特子实体可能是为了优化其在不同生态位中的持久性而进化而来的。当务之急是了解不断变化的气候条件如何反馈影响环境微生物群落。粘菌是环境中无处不在的社会性细菌,它们会影响当地微生物群落的组成。确定这些细菌如何受到环境污染的影响是预测气候反馈效应的必要组成部分。当饥饿时,粘菌会产生充满孢子的多细胞子实体。由于孢子可抵抗各种环境侵袭,建立子实体的进化优势尚不明确。我们利用黄腐霉菌(Myxococcus xanthus)这一模式霉菌证明,高大、干草堆状的子实体形态比游离孢子更能抵抗紫外线照射。相反,子实体对长时间干燥后的恢复略有不利,如果扰乱子实体形态,这种影响会被大大夸大。这些结果表明,在霉菌中观察到的各种子实体形态可能决定了它们对不断变化的气候条件的相对抵抗力。
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Applied and Environmental Microbiology
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