Pub Date : 2021-11-29DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-092010
A. Denning
Carbon is among the most abundant substances in the universe; although severely depleted in Earth, it is the primary structural element in biochemistry. Complex interactions between carbon and climate have stabilized the Earth system over geologic time. Since the modern instrumental CO2 record began in the 1950s, about half of fossil fuel emissions have been sequestered in the oceans and land ecosystems. Ocean uptake of fossil CO2 is governed by chemistry and circulation. Net land uptake is surprising because it implies a persistent worldwide excess of growth over decay. Land carbon sinks include ( a) CO2 fertilization, ( b) nitrogen fertilization, ( c) forest regrowth following agricultural abandonment, and ( d ) boreal warming. Carbon sinks in both land and oceans are threatened by warming and are likely to weaken or even reverse as emissions fall with the potential for amplification of climate change due to the release of previously stored carbon. Fossil CO2 will persist for centuries and perhaps many millennia after emissions cease. ▪ About half the carbon from fossil fuel combustion is removed from the atmosphere by sink processes in the land and oceans, slowing the increase of CO2 and global warming. These sinks may weaken or even reverse as climate warms and emissions fall. ▪ The net land sink for CO2 requires that plants have been growing faster than they decay for many decades, causing carbon to build up in the biosphere over and above the carbon lost to deforestation, fire, and other disturbances. ▪ CO2 uptake by the oceans is slow because only the surface water is in chemical contact with the air. Cold water at depth is physically isolated by its density. Deep water mixes with the surface in about 1,000 years. The deep water does not know we are here yet! ▪ After fossil fuel emissions cease, much of the extra CO2 will remain in the atmosphere for many centuries or even millennia. The lifetime of excess CO2 depends on total historical emissions; 10% to 40% could last until the year 40,000 AD. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Where Has All the Carbon Gone?","authors":"A. Denning","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-092010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-092010","url":null,"abstract":"Carbon is among the most abundant substances in the universe; although severely depleted in Earth, it is the primary structural element in biochemistry. Complex interactions between carbon and climate have stabilized the Earth system over geologic time. Since the modern instrumental CO2 record began in the 1950s, about half of fossil fuel emissions have been sequestered in the oceans and land ecosystems. Ocean uptake of fossil CO2 is governed by chemistry and circulation. Net land uptake is surprising because it implies a persistent worldwide excess of growth over decay. Land carbon sinks include ( a) CO2 fertilization, ( b) nitrogen fertilization, ( c) forest regrowth following agricultural abandonment, and ( d ) boreal warming. Carbon sinks in both land and oceans are threatened by warming and are likely to weaken or even reverse as emissions fall with the potential for amplification of climate change due to the release of previously stored carbon. Fossil CO2 will persist for centuries and perhaps many millennia after emissions cease. ▪ About half the carbon from fossil fuel combustion is removed from the atmosphere by sink processes in the land and oceans, slowing the increase of CO2 and global warming. These sinks may weaken or even reverse as climate warms and emissions fall. ▪ The net land sink for CO2 requires that plants have been growing faster than they decay for many decades, causing carbon to build up in the biosphere over and above the carbon lost to deforestation, fire, and other disturbances. ▪ CO2 uptake by the oceans is slow because only the surface water is in chemical contact with the air. Cold water at depth is physically isolated by its density. Deep water mixes with the surface in about 1,000 years. The deep water does not know we are here yet! ▪ After fossil fuel emissions cease, much of the extra CO2 will remain in the atmosphere for many centuries or even millennia. The lifetime of excess CO2 depends on total historical emissions; 10% to 40% could last until the year 40,000 AD. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-11-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"87053521","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-10-07DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125
M. McNutt
Geoscientists have generally been at the leading edge of predicting the challenges society faces from hazards both natural and anthropomorphic. As geoscientists, we have been less successful in devising the solutions to those problems to ensure a habitable planet for ourselves and future generations because often the solutions lie in creating novel partnerships with other researchers, including engineers, biologists, and social scientists. These sorts of transdisciplinary partnerships have been leading to radical advances in human health, under the banner of convergence science. Application of these principles of convergence science offers significant promise for addressing challenges such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental health, protecting ecosystem services, and advancing sustainability science. To apply this approach rigorously, however, will involve a culture change in the geosciences in terms of how students are educated, how researchers are rewarded, and how projects are funded. ▪ Geoscientists need to work collaboratively with life, physical, and social scientists, as well as engineers, to solve the problems of our time. ▪ Universities need to address financial, procedural, educational, and cultural impediments to the conduct of convergence research. ▪ Adopting a solutions orientation to major environmental issues could help attract a more diverse geoscience workforce. ▪ Climate change mitigation would benefit from partnerships between geoscientists and social scientists to make the right behavior easy. ▪ The current course of Earth science education, research, and partnerships is inadequate to address sustainability. ▪ Ensuring environmental health requires collaboration between experts in health, environment, infrastructure, and economics. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Civilization-Saving Science for the Twenty-First Century","authors":"M. McNutt","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125","url":null,"abstract":"Geoscientists have generally been at the leading edge of predicting the challenges society faces from hazards both natural and anthropomorphic. As geoscientists, we have been less successful in devising the solutions to those problems to ensure a habitable planet for ourselves and future generations because often the solutions lie in creating novel partnerships with other researchers, including engineers, biologists, and social scientists. These sorts of transdisciplinary partnerships have been leading to radical advances in human health, under the banner of convergence science. Application of these principles of convergence science offers significant promise for addressing challenges such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental health, protecting ecosystem services, and advancing sustainability science. To apply this approach rigorously, however, will involve a culture change in the geosciences in terms of how students are educated, how researchers are rewarded, and how projects are funded. ▪ Geoscientists need to work collaboratively with life, physical, and social scientists, as well as engineers, to solve the problems of our time. ▪ Universities need to address financial, procedural, educational, and cultural impediments to the conduct of convergence research. ▪ Adopting a solutions orientation to major environmental issues could help attract a more diverse geoscience workforce. ▪ Climate change mitigation would benefit from partnerships between geoscientists and social scientists to make the right behavior easy. ▪ The current course of Earth science education, research, and partnerships is inadequate to address sustainability. ▪ Ensuring environmental health requires collaboration between experts in health, environment, infrastructure, and economics. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84325969","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-091620-113028
Masaki Yoshida, K. Yoshizawa
The influence of the continental lithosphere and its root (or keel) on the continental drift of Earth is a key element in the history of plate tectonics. Previous geodynamic studies of mantle flow ...
{"title":"Continental Drift with Deep Cratonic Roots","authors":"Masaki Yoshida, K. Yoshizawa","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-091620-113028","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-091620-113028","url":null,"abstract":"The influence of the continental lithosphere and its root (or keel) on the continental drift of Earth is a key element in the history of plate tectonics. Previous geodynamic studies of mantle flow ...","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81661749","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/ANNUREV-EARTH-063016-015810
D. Tappin
{"title":"Submarine Landslides and Their Tsunami Hazard","authors":"D. Tappin","doi":"10.1146/ANNUREV-EARTH-063016-015810","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-EARTH-063016-015810","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79161155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-062420-052845
B. Jakosky
Mars is the nearest planet that potentially harbors life and that can be explored by humans, so its history of water is of considerable importance. Water was abundant on early Mars but disappeared ...
{"title":"Atmospheric Loss to Space and the History of Water on Mars","authors":"B. Jakosky","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-062420-052845","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-062420-052845","url":null,"abstract":"Mars is the nearest planet that potentially harbors life and that can be explored by humans, so its history of water is of considerable importance. Water was abundant on early Mars but disappeared ...","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83367376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-071420-051746
R. Sterner
The Laurentian Great Lakes are vast, spatially heterogeneous, and changing. Across these hydrologically linked basins, some conditions approach biogeochemical extremes for freshwater systems anywhe...
{"title":"The Laurentian Great Lakes: A Biogeochemical Test Bed","authors":"R. Sterner","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-071420-051746","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-071420-051746","url":null,"abstract":"The Laurentian Great Lakes are vast, spatially heterogeneous, and changing. Across these hydrologically linked basins, some conditions approach biogeochemical extremes for freshwater systems anywhe...","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75881021","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-072420-071823
J. Wray
The martian surface preserves a record of aqueous fluids throughout the planet's history, but when, where, and even whether such fluids exist at the contemporary surface remains an area of ongoing ...
{"title":"Contemporary Liquid Water on Mars?","authors":"J. Wray","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-072420-071823","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-072420-071823","url":null,"abstract":"The martian surface preserves a record of aqueous fluids throughout the planet's history, but when, where, and even whether such fluids exist at the contemporary surface remains an area of ongoing ...","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76529611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/ANNUREV-EARTH-082420-095244
I. Pater, J. Keane, K. Kleer, A. Davies
Jupiter's Galilean satellite Io is one of the most remarkable objects in our Solar System. The tidal heating Io undergoes through its orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede has resulted in a body rich in active silicate volcanism. Over the past decades, Io has been observed from ground-based and Earth-orbiting telescopes and by several spacecraft. In this review we summarize the progress made toward our understanding of the physical and chemical processes related to Io and its environment since the Galileo era. Io science has been revolutionized by the use of adaptive optics techniques on large, 8- to 10-m telescopes. The resultant ever-increasing database, mapping the size, style, and spatial distribution of Io's diverse volcanoes, has improved our understanding of Io's interior structure, its likely composition, and the tidal heating process. Additionally, new observations of Io's atmosphere obtained with these large optical/infrared telescopes and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array reveal the presence of volcanic plumes, the (at times) near-collapse of Io's atmosphere during eclipse, and the interactions of plumes with the sublimation atmosphere. ▪ Extensive new data sets of Io at ultraviolet, mid- to near-infrared, and radio wavelengths have been gathered since the Galileo era. ▪ New data and models inform us about tidal heating, surface properties, and magma composition across Io—although key questions remain. ▪ Atmospheric observations indicate a dominant sublimation-supported component and reinforce the presence of stealth volcanism. ▪ Observations of volcanic plumes show high gas velocities (up to ∼1 km/s) and their effect on Io's atmosphere. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 49 is May 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"A 2020 Observational Perspective of Io","authors":"I. Pater, J. Keane, K. Kleer, A. Davies","doi":"10.1146/ANNUREV-EARTH-082420-095244","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-EARTH-082420-095244","url":null,"abstract":"Jupiter's Galilean satellite Io is one of the most remarkable objects in our Solar System. The tidal heating Io undergoes through its orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede has resulted in a body rich in active silicate volcanism. Over the past decades, Io has been observed from ground-based and Earth-orbiting telescopes and by several spacecraft. In this review we summarize the progress made toward our understanding of the physical and chemical processes related to Io and its environment since the Galileo era. Io science has been revolutionized by the use of adaptive optics techniques on large, 8- to 10-m telescopes. The resultant ever-increasing database, mapping the size, style, and spatial distribution of Io's diverse volcanoes, has improved our understanding of Io's interior structure, its likely composition, and the tidal heating process. Additionally, new observations of Io's atmosphere obtained with these large optical/infrared telescopes and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array reveal the presence of volcanic plumes, the (at times) near-collapse of Io's atmosphere during eclipse, and the interactions of plumes with the sublimation atmosphere. ▪ Extensive new data sets of Io at ultraviolet, mid- to near-infrared, and radio wavelengths have been gathered since the Galileo era. ▪ New data and models inform us about tidal heating, surface properties, and magma composition across Io—although key questions remain. ▪ Atmospheric observations indicate a dominant sublimation-supported component and reinforce the presence of stealth volcanism. ▪ Observations of volcanic plumes show high gas velocities (up to ∼1 km/s) and their effect on Io's atmosphere. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 49 is May 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75957424","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-080320-060708
F. Costa
Understanding the evolution and processes that shape our planet critically depends on the robustness of the absolute ages and process durations obtained from rocks and crystals. Two main aspects of...
{"title":"Clocks in Magmatic Rocks","authors":"F. Costa","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-080320-060708","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-080320-060708","url":null,"abstract":"Understanding the evolution and processes that shape our planet critically depends on the robustness of the absolute ages and process durations obtained from rocks and crystals. Two main aspects of...","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77957341","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-30DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-071720-051448
J. Moore, W. McKinnon
Pluto and Charon are strikingly diverse in their range of geologies, surface compositions, and crater retention ages. This is despite the two having similar densities and presumed bulk compositions...
{"title":"Geologically Diverse Pluto and Charon: Implications for the Dwarf Planets of the Kuiper Belt","authors":"J. Moore, W. McKinnon","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-071720-051448","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-071720-051448","url":null,"abstract":"Pluto and Charon are strikingly diverse in their range of geologies, surface compositions, and crater retention ages. This is despite the two having similar densities and presumed bulk compositions...","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2021-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77782182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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