Pub Date : 2022-05-31DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-085507
E. Schulson, C. Renshaw
Water ice Ih exhibits brittle behavior when rapidly loaded. Under tension, it fails via crack nucleation and propagation. Compressive failure is more complicated. Under low confinement, cracks slide and interact to form a frictional (Coulombic) fault. Under high confinement, frictional sliding is suppressed and adiabatic heating through crystallographic slip leads to the formation of a plastic fault. The coefficient of static friction increases with time under load, owing to creep of asperities in contact. The coefficient of kinetic (dynamic) friction, set by the ratio of asperity shear strength to hardness, increases with velocity at lower speeds and decreases at higher speeds as contacts melt through frictional heating. Microcracks, upon reaching a critical number density (which near the ductile-to-brittle transition is nearly constant above a certain strain rate), form a pathway for percolation. Additional work is needed on the effects of porosity and crack healing. ▪ An understanding of brittle failure is essential to better predict the integrity of the Arctic and Antarctic sea ice covers and the tectonic evolution of the icy crusts of Enceladus, Europa, and other extraterrestrial satellites. ▪ Fundamental to the brittle failure of ice is the initiation and propagation of microcracks, frictional sliding across crack faces, and localization of strain through both crack interaction and adiabatic heating.
{"title":"Fracture, Friction, and Permeability of Ice","authors":"E. Schulson, C. Renshaw","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-085507","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-085507","url":null,"abstract":"Water ice Ih exhibits brittle behavior when rapidly loaded. Under tension, it fails via crack nucleation and propagation. Compressive failure is more complicated. Under low confinement, cracks slide and interact to form a frictional (Coulombic) fault. Under high confinement, frictional sliding is suppressed and adiabatic heating through crystallographic slip leads to the formation of a plastic fault. The coefficient of static friction increases with time under load, owing to creep of asperities in contact. The coefficient of kinetic (dynamic) friction, set by the ratio of asperity shear strength to hardness, increases with velocity at lower speeds and decreases at higher speeds as contacts melt through frictional heating. Microcracks, upon reaching a critical number density (which near the ductile-to-brittle transition is nearly constant above a certain strain rate), form a pathway for percolation. Additional work is needed on the effects of porosity and crack healing. ▪ An understanding of brittle failure is essential to better predict the integrity of the Arctic and Antarctic sea ice covers and the tectonic evolution of the icy crusts of Enceladus, Europa, and other extraterrestrial satellites. ▪ Fundamental to the brittle failure of ice is the initiation and propagation of microcracks, frictional sliding across crack faces, and localization of strain through both crack interaction and adiabatic heating.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"54 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84565069","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-05-31DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-080921-052816
A. Schmidt, B. Black
Volcanic eruptions impact climate, subtly and profoundly. The size of an eruption is only loosely correlated with the severity of its climate effects, which can include changes in surface temperature, ozone levels, stratospheric dynamics, precipitation, and ocean circulation. We review the processes—in magma chambers, eruption columns, and the oceans, biosphere, and atmosphere—that mediate the climate response to an eruption. A complex relationship between eruption size, style, duration, and the subsequent severity of the climate response emerges. We advocate for a new, consistent metric, the Volcano-Climate Index, to categorize climate response to eruptions independent of eruption properties and spanning the full range of volcanic activity, from brief explosive eruptions to long-lasting flood basalts. A consistent metric for categorizing the climate response to eruptions that differ in size, style, and duration is critical for establishing the relationshipbetween the severity and the frequency of such responses aiding hazard assessments, and furthering understanding of volcanic impacts on climate on timescales of years to millions of years. ▪ We review the processes driving the rocky relationship between eruption size and climate response and propose a Volcano-Climate Index. ▪ Volcanic eruptions perturb Earth's climate on a range of timescales, with key open questions regarding how processes in the magmatic system, eruption column, and atmosphere shape the climate response to volcanism. ▪ A Volcano-Climate Index will provide information on the volcano-climate severity-frequency distribution, analogous to earthquake hazards. ▪ Understanding of the frequency of specific levels of volcanic climate effects will aid hazard assessments, planning, and mitigation of societal impacts.
{"title":"Reckoning with the Rocky Relationship Between Eruption Size and Climate Response: Toward a Volcano-Climate Index","authors":"A. Schmidt, B. Black","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-080921-052816","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-080921-052816","url":null,"abstract":"Volcanic eruptions impact climate, subtly and profoundly. The size of an eruption is only loosely correlated with the severity of its climate effects, which can include changes in surface temperature, ozone levels, stratospheric dynamics, precipitation, and ocean circulation. We review the processes—in magma chambers, eruption columns, and the oceans, biosphere, and atmosphere—that mediate the climate response to an eruption. A complex relationship between eruption size, style, duration, and the subsequent severity of the climate response emerges. We advocate for a new, consistent metric, the Volcano-Climate Index, to categorize climate response to eruptions independent of eruption properties and spanning the full range of volcanic activity, from brief explosive eruptions to long-lasting flood basalts. A consistent metric for categorizing the climate response to eruptions that differ in size, style, and duration is critical for establishing the relationshipbetween the severity and the frequency of such responses aiding hazard assessments, and furthering understanding of volcanic impacts on climate on timescales of years to millions of years. ▪ We review the processes driving the rocky relationship between eruption size and climate response and propose a Volcano-Climate Index. ▪ Volcanic eruptions perturb Earth's climate on a range of timescales, with key open questions regarding how processes in the magmatic system, eruption column, and atmosphere shape the climate response to volcanism. ▪ A Volcano-Climate Index will provide information on the volcano-climate severity-frequency distribution, analogous to earthquake hazards. ▪ Understanding of the frequency of specific levels of volcanic climate effects will aid hazard assessments, planning, and mitigation of societal impacts.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"37 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76464703","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-03-14DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-102849
D. Merritts, M. Rahnis
Just as glaciers worldwide left a record of past advances and retreats that shifted latitudinally in response to oscillating Quaternary climate changes, so too have cold-climate conditions and permafrost left topographic and sedimentary signatures in former periglacial environments. This review documents widespread occurrence of past permafrost and intense frost action that led to rock fracturing, regolith production, and regolith-mantled slopes in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States during late Pleistocene cold-climate conditions. Strong signatures of thermal contraction cracking and brecciation from frost cracking exist where rocks and sediments are most frost susceptible, as with fissile shales. On sandstone hillslopes, frost weathering produced boulder-rich sediment that episodically flowed slowly downslope during permafrost thaw, resulting in solifluction lobes and terraces in which colluvium moved cumulatively at least a kilometer. Radiocarbon dating, optically stimulated luminescence age control, and cosmogenic isotope studies constrain some periglacial features to the Last Glacial Maximum but also indicate longer residence times of regolith. ▪ Former permafrost and areas of intensive frost cracking extended over much of the mid-Atlantic region of the eastern United States during late Pleistocene cold glacial periods. ▪ Cold-climate conditions and permafrost left long-lasting topographic and sedimentary records with limited post-depositional erosion in the formerly periglacial mid-Atlantic region. ▪ Prominent relict periglacial landforms include polygon networks and frost wedges that are the result of thermal contraction cracking and brecciated rock formed by segregated ice and frost cracking. ▪ Widespread solifluction landforms are a topographic signature of freezing, thawing, and mass movement of mobile regolith produced by frost cracking, and some were active during the Last Glacial Maximum. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Pleistocene Periglacial Processes and Landforms, Mid-Atlantic Region, Eastern United States","authors":"D. Merritts, M. Rahnis","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-102849","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-102849","url":null,"abstract":"Just as glaciers worldwide left a record of past advances and retreats that shifted latitudinally in response to oscillating Quaternary climate changes, so too have cold-climate conditions and permafrost left topographic and sedimentary signatures in former periglacial environments. This review documents widespread occurrence of past permafrost and intense frost action that led to rock fracturing, regolith production, and regolith-mantled slopes in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States during late Pleistocene cold-climate conditions. Strong signatures of thermal contraction cracking and brecciation from frost cracking exist where rocks and sediments are most frost susceptible, as with fissile shales. On sandstone hillslopes, frost weathering produced boulder-rich sediment that episodically flowed slowly downslope during permafrost thaw, resulting in solifluction lobes and terraces in which colluvium moved cumulatively at least a kilometer. Radiocarbon dating, optically stimulated luminescence age control, and cosmogenic isotope studies constrain some periglacial features to the Last Glacial Maximum but also indicate longer residence times of regolith. ▪ Former permafrost and areas of intensive frost cracking extended over much of the mid-Atlantic region of the eastern United States during late Pleistocene cold glacial periods. ▪ Cold-climate conditions and permafrost left long-lasting topographic and sedimentary records with limited post-depositional erosion in the formerly periglacial mid-Atlantic region. ▪ Prominent relict periglacial landforms include polygon networks and frost wedges that are the result of thermal contraction cracking and brecciated rock formed by segregated ice and frost cracking. ▪ Widespread solifluction landforms are a topographic signature of freezing, thawing, and mass movement of mobile regolith produced by frost cracking, and some were active during the Last Glacial Maximum. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"166 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75453098","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-03-14DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-090746
M. Dai, Jianzhong Su, Yangyang Zhao, E. Hofmann, Zhimian Cao, W. Cai, J. Gan, Fabrice Lacroix, G. Laruelle, Feifei Meng, J. Müller, P. Régnier, Guizhi Wang, Zhixuan Wang
This review examines the current understanding of the global coastal ocean carbon cycle and provides a new quantitative synthesis of air-sea CO2 exchange. This reanalysis yields an estimate for the globally integrated coastal ocean CO2 flux of −0.25 ± 0.05 Pg C year−1, with polar and subpolar regions accounting for most of the CO2 removal (>90%). A framework that classifies river-dominated ocean margin (RiOMar) and ocean-dominated margin (OceMar) systems is used to conceptualize coastal carbon cycle processes. The carbon dynamics in three contrasting case study regions, the Baltic Sea, the Mid-Atlantic Bight, and the South China Sea, are compared in terms of the spatio-temporal variability of surface pCO2. Ocean carbon models that range from box models to three-dimensional coupled circulation-biogeochemical models are reviewed in terms of the ability to simulate key processes and project future changes in different continental shelf regions. Common unresolved challenges remain for implementation of these models across RiOMar and OceMar systems. The long-term trends in coastal ocean carbon fluxes for different coastal systems under anthropogenic stress that are emerging in observations and numerical simulations are highlighted. Knowledge gaps in projecting future perturbations associated with before and after net-zero CO2 emissions in the context of concurrent changes in the land-ocean-atmosphere coupled system pose a key challenge. ▪ A new synthesis yields an estimate for globally integrated coastal ocean carbon sink of −0.25 Pg C year−1, with greater than 90% of atmospheric CO2 removal occurring in polar and subpolar regions. ▪ The sustained coastal and open ocean carbon sink is vital in mitigating climate change and meeting the target set by the Paris Agreement. ▪ Uncertainties in the future coastal ocean carbon cycle are associated with concurrent trends and changes in the land-ocean-atmosphere coupled system. ▪ The major gaps and challenges identified for current coastal ocean carbon research have important implications for climate and sustainability policies. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Carbon Fluxes in the Coastal Ocean: Synthesis, Boundary Processes and Future Trends","authors":"M. Dai, Jianzhong Su, Yangyang Zhao, E. Hofmann, Zhimian Cao, W. Cai, J. Gan, Fabrice Lacroix, G. Laruelle, Feifei Meng, J. Müller, P. Régnier, Guizhi Wang, Zhixuan Wang","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-090746","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-090746","url":null,"abstract":"This review examines the current understanding of the global coastal ocean carbon cycle and provides a new quantitative synthesis of air-sea CO2 exchange. This reanalysis yields an estimate for the globally integrated coastal ocean CO2 flux of −0.25 ± 0.05 Pg C year−1, with polar and subpolar regions accounting for most of the CO2 removal (>90%). A framework that classifies river-dominated ocean margin (RiOMar) and ocean-dominated margin (OceMar) systems is used to conceptualize coastal carbon cycle processes. The carbon dynamics in three contrasting case study regions, the Baltic Sea, the Mid-Atlantic Bight, and the South China Sea, are compared in terms of the spatio-temporal variability of surface pCO2. Ocean carbon models that range from box models to three-dimensional coupled circulation-biogeochemical models are reviewed in terms of the ability to simulate key processes and project future changes in different continental shelf regions. Common unresolved challenges remain for implementation of these models across RiOMar and OceMar systems. The long-term trends in coastal ocean carbon fluxes for different coastal systems under anthropogenic stress that are emerging in observations and numerical simulations are highlighted. Knowledge gaps in projecting future perturbations associated with before and after net-zero CO2 emissions in the context of concurrent changes in the land-ocean-atmosphere coupled system pose a key challenge. ▪ A new synthesis yields an estimate for globally integrated coastal ocean carbon sink of −0.25 Pg C year−1, with greater than 90% of atmospheric CO2 removal occurring in polar and subpolar regions. ▪ The sustained coastal and open ocean carbon sink is vital in mitigating climate change and meeting the target set by the Paris Agreement. ▪ Uncertainties in the future coastal ocean carbon cycle are associated with concurrent trends and changes in the land-ocean-atmosphere coupled system. ▪ The major gaps and challenges identified for current coastal ocean carbon research have important implications for climate and sustainability policies. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85501096","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-28DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-074429
T. Sagiya, A. Meneses‐Gutierrez
Northeast Japan is a typical island arc related to the Pacific plate subduction. The 2011 Mw 9.0 Tohoku-oki earthquake provided a unique opportunity to analyze crustal deformation with different boundary conditions, similar to a gigantic rock deformation experiment. We review findings obtained through various observations and data analyses in Northeast Japan, focusing on the crustal deformation in different timescales. The occurrence of the M9 earthquake solved the ongoing paradox that the geodetic strain rate is an order of magnitude larger than the geologic estimate, showing that the centennial geodetic observation had mainly captured the elastic strain accumulation. Along the localized contraction zone along the Japan Sea coast, a comparison of postseismic and interseismic deformation patterns revealed a significant contribution of inelastic deformation, which plays an essential role in long-term deformation. Along the Pacific coast, rapid interseismic subsidence and unexpected coseismic subsidence were followed by a rapid postseismic uplift, indicating that viscous relaxation in the mantle is of essential importance. These findings advance our understanding of plate interactions and the tectonic evolution of the island arc. ▪ The 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake provided the most complete crustal deformation data set ever for interseismic, coseismic, and postseismic periods. ▪ The discrepancy between the geologic and geodetic deformation rates in Northeast Japan is attributed to an elastic strain due to interplate locking. ▪ A significant contribution of inelastic deformation in the island arc crust is identified through a comparison of interseismic and postseismic deformations. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Geodetic and Geological Deformation of the Island Arc in Northeast Japan Revealed by the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake","authors":"T. Sagiya, A. Meneses‐Gutierrez","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-074429","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-074429","url":null,"abstract":"Northeast Japan is a typical island arc related to the Pacific plate subduction. The 2011 Mw 9.0 Tohoku-oki earthquake provided a unique opportunity to analyze crustal deformation with different boundary conditions, similar to a gigantic rock deformation experiment. We review findings obtained through various observations and data analyses in Northeast Japan, focusing on the crustal deformation in different timescales. The occurrence of the M9 earthquake solved the ongoing paradox that the geodetic strain rate is an order of magnitude larger than the geologic estimate, showing that the centennial geodetic observation had mainly captured the elastic strain accumulation. Along the localized contraction zone along the Japan Sea coast, a comparison of postseismic and interseismic deformation patterns revealed a significant contribution of inelastic deformation, which plays an essential role in long-term deformation. Along the Pacific coast, rapid interseismic subsidence and unexpected coseismic subsidence were followed by a rapid postseismic uplift, indicating that viscous relaxation in the mantle is of essential importance. These findings advance our understanding of plate interactions and the tectonic evolution of the island arc. ▪ The 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake provided the most complete crustal deformation data set ever for interseismic, coseismic, and postseismic periods. ▪ The discrepancy between the geologic and geodetic deformation rates in Northeast Japan is attributed to an elastic strain due to interplate locking. ▪ A significant contribution of inelastic deformation in the island arc crust is identified through a comparison of interseismic and postseismic deformations. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"116 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89181452","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-28DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-012721-051416
Stephen Self, Tushar Mittal, Gauri Dole, Loÿc Vanderkluysen
Large igneous provinces (LIPs) represent some of the greatest volcanic events in Earth history with significant impacts on ecosystems, including mass extinctions. However, some fundamental questions related to the eruption rate, eruption style, and vent locations for LIP lava flows remain unanswered. In this review, we use the Cretaceous–Paleogene Deccan Traps as an archetype to address these questions because they are one of the best-preserved large continental flood basalt provinces. We describe the volcanological features of the Deccan flows and the potential temporal and regional variations as well as the spatial characteristics of potential feeder dikes. Along with estimates of mean long-term eruption rates for individual Deccan lavas from paleomagnetism and Hg proxy records of ∼50–250 km3/year (erupting for tens to hundreds of years), the Deccan volcanic characteristics suggest a unified conceptual model for eruption of voluminous (>1,000 km3) LIP lavas with large spatial extent (>40,000 km2). We conclude by highlighting a few key open questions and challenges that can help improve our understanding of how the Deccan flows, as well as LIP flows in general, erupted and the mechanisms by which the lavas may have flowed over distances up to 1,000 km. ▪ The Deccan Traps are an archetype for addressing fundamental volcanological questions related to eruption rate, eruption style, and vent locations for large igneous province lava flows. ▪ Deccan subprovinces likely evolved as separate volcanic systems; thus, long-distance/interprovince flow correlations must be carefully assessed. ▪ The earliest eruptions came through the Narmada-Tapi rift zone followed by the establishment of a separate magmatic plumbing system by mantle plume–associated magmas. ▪ Typical Deccan eruption rates were ∼50–250 km3/year of lava. Individual eruptions lasted for a few hundred to 1,000 years and were separated by hiatuses of 3,000–6,000 years. ▪ The conspicuous absence of dikes in the Central Deccan region strongly implies long-distance surface transport of lavas in the form of flows hundreds of kilometers long.
{"title":"Toward Understanding Deccan Volcanism","authors":"Stephen Self, Tushar Mittal, Gauri Dole, Loÿc Vanderkluysen","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-012721-051416","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-012721-051416","url":null,"abstract":"Large igneous provinces (LIPs) represent some of the greatest volcanic events in Earth history with significant impacts on ecosystems, including mass extinctions. However, some fundamental questions related to the eruption rate, eruption style, and vent locations for LIP lava flows remain unanswered. In this review, we use the Cretaceous–Paleogene Deccan Traps as an archetype to address these questions because they are one of the best-preserved large continental flood basalt provinces. We describe the volcanological features of the Deccan flows and the potential temporal and regional variations as well as the spatial characteristics of potential feeder dikes. Along with estimates of mean long-term eruption rates for individual Deccan lavas from paleomagnetism and Hg proxy records of ∼50–250 km<jats:sup>3</jats:sup>/year (erupting for tens to hundreds of years), the Deccan volcanic characteristics suggest a unified conceptual model for eruption of voluminous (>1,000 km<jats:sup>3</jats:sup>) LIP lavas with large spatial extent (>40,000 km<jats:sup>2</jats:sup>). We conclude by highlighting a few key open questions and challenges that can help improve our understanding of how the Deccan flows, as well as LIP flows in general, erupted and the mechanisms by which the lavas may have flowed over distances up to 1,000 km. ▪ The Deccan Traps are an archetype for addressing fundamental volcanological questions related to eruption rate, eruption style, and vent locations for large igneous province lava flows. ▪ Deccan subprovinces likely evolved as separate volcanic systems; thus, long-distance/interprovince flow correlations must be carefully assessed. ▪ The earliest eruptions came through the Narmada-Tapi rift zone followed by the establishment of a separate magmatic plumbing system by mantle plume–associated magmas. ▪ Typical Deccan eruption rates were ∼50–250 km<jats:sup>3</jats:sup>/year of lava. Individual eruptions lasted for a few hundred to 1,000 years and were separated by hiatuses of 3,000–6,000 years. ▪ The conspicuous absence of dikes in the Central Deccan region strongly implies long-distance surface transport of lavas in the form of flows hundreds of kilometers long.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"11 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138533929","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-25DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-081427
S. Peters, D. Quinn, J. Husson, R. Gaines
Rocks in Earth's crust are formed, modified, and destroyed in response to myriad interactions between the solid Earth (tectonics, geodynamics), the fluid Earth (ocean-atmosphere, cryosphere), and the living Earth (evolution, biochemistry). As such, the geological record is an integrator of geological, biological, and climatological processes and their histories. Here we review contrasting perceptions of the processes that govern the formation and destruction of the geological record, beginning with the relationship between macroevolutionary patterns in the fossil and sedimentary rock records and culminating with contrasting models of rock cycling. Using the approach of macrostratigraphy, we present an integrated summary of the quantity-age properties of rocks in continental and oceanic crust. The predominant process signal in the rock quantity-age distribution in continental crust is one of episodic growth, whereas in oceanic crust it is one of continual destruction. Relatively abrupt shifts in the dominant locus of sediment deposition, from fast-cycling oceanic crust to long-term continental reservoirs, and attendant expansions and contractions in the area of crust that is emergent, are correlated in timing and magnitude with shifts in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere and major macroevolutionary transitions in the biosphere. The most recent of possibly two such first-order transitions occurred at the start of the Phanerozoic and is marked by a prominent preserved geomorphic surface known as the Great Unconformity. ▪ Macrostratigraphy uses the bulk characteristics of the rock record to probe the evolution of the Earth system. ▪ Quantifying the creation and destruction of rock units can illuminate the long-term evolution of continents and the life that inhabits them. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Macrostratigraphy: Insights into Cyclic and Secular Evolution of the Earth-Life System","authors":"S. Peters, D. Quinn, J. Husson, R. Gaines","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-081427","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-081427","url":null,"abstract":"Rocks in Earth's crust are formed, modified, and destroyed in response to myriad interactions between the solid Earth (tectonics, geodynamics), the fluid Earth (ocean-atmosphere, cryosphere), and the living Earth (evolution, biochemistry). As such, the geological record is an integrator of geological, biological, and climatological processes and their histories. Here we review contrasting perceptions of the processes that govern the formation and destruction of the geological record, beginning with the relationship between macroevolutionary patterns in the fossil and sedimentary rock records and culminating with contrasting models of rock cycling. Using the approach of macrostratigraphy, we present an integrated summary of the quantity-age properties of rocks in continental and oceanic crust. The predominant process signal in the rock quantity-age distribution in continental crust is one of episodic growth, whereas in oceanic crust it is one of continual destruction. Relatively abrupt shifts in the dominant locus of sediment deposition, from fast-cycling oceanic crust to long-term continental reservoirs, and attendant expansions and contractions in the area of crust that is emergent, are correlated in timing and magnitude with shifts in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere and major macroevolutionary transitions in the biosphere. The most recent of possibly two such first-order transitions occurred at the start of the Phanerozoic and is marked by a prominent preserved geomorphic surface known as the Great Unconformity. ▪ Macrostratigraphy uses the bulk characteristics of the rock record to probe the evolution of the Earth system. ▪ Quantifying the creation and destruction of rock units can illuminate the long-term evolution of continents and the life that inhabits them. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"36 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72977185","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-25DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-031920-081947
A. Cohen, Christopher J. Campisano, J. Arrowsmith, A. Asrat, C. Beck, A. Behrensmeyer, A. Deino, C. Feibel, Verena Foerster, J. Kingston, H. Lamb, T. Lowenstein, R. Lupien, V. Muiruri, D. Olago, R. Owen, R. Potts, J. Russell, F. Schaebitz, J. Stone, M. Trauth, Chad Yost
Paleoanthropologists have long speculated about the role of environmental change in shaping human evolution in Africa. In recent years, drill cores of late Neogene lacustrine sedimentary rocks have yielded valuable high-resolution records of climatic and ecosystem change. Eastern African Rift sediments (primarily lake beds) provide an extraordinary range of data in close proximity to important fossil hominin and archaeological sites, allowing critical study of hypotheses that connect environmental history and hominin evolution. We review recent drill-core studies spanning the Plio–Pleistocene boundary (an interval of hominin diversification, including the earliest members of our genus Homo and the oldest stone tools), and the Mid–Upper Pleistocene (spanning the origin of Homo sapiens in Africa and our early technological and dispersal history). Proposed drilling of Africa's oldest lakes promises to extend such records back to the late Miocene. ▪ High-resolution paleoenvironmental records are critical for understanding external drivers of human evolution. ▪ African lake basin drill cores play a critical role in enhancing hominin paleoenvironmental records given their continuity and proximity to key paleoanthropological sites. ▪ The oldest African lakes have the potential to reveal a comprehensive paleoenvironmental context for the entire late Neogene history of hominin evolution. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Reconstructing the Environmental Context of Human Origins in Eastern Africa Through Scientific Drilling","authors":"A. Cohen, Christopher J. Campisano, J. Arrowsmith, A. Asrat, C. Beck, A. Behrensmeyer, A. Deino, C. Feibel, Verena Foerster, J. Kingston, H. Lamb, T. Lowenstein, R. Lupien, V. Muiruri, D. Olago, R. Owen, R. Potts, J. Russell, F. Schaebitz, J. Stone, M. Trauth, Chad Yost","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-031920-081947","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-031920-081947","url":null,"abstract":"Paleoanthropologists have long speculated about the role of environmental change in shaping human evolution in Africa. In recent years, drill cores of late Neogene lacustrine sedimentary rocks have yielded valuable high-resolution records of climatic and ecosystem change. Eastern African Rift sediments (primarily lake beds) provide an extraordinary range of data in close proximity to important fossil hominin and archaeological sites, allowing critical study of hypotheses that connect environmental history and hominin evolution. We review recent drill-core studies spanning the Plio–Pleistocene boundary (an interval of hominin diversification, including the earliest members of our genus Homo and the oldest stone tools), and the Mid–Upper Pleistocene (spanning the origin of Homo sapiens in Africa and our early technological and dispersal history). Proposed drilling of Africa's oldest lakes promises to extend such records back to the late Miocene. ▪ High-resolution paleoenvironmental records are critical for understanding external drivers of human evolution. ▪ African lake basin drill cores play a critical role in enhancing hominin paleoenvironmental records given their continuity and proximity to key paleoanthropological sites. ▪ The oldest African lakes have the potential to reveal a comprehensive paleoenvironmental context for the entire late Neogene history of hominin evolution. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"4 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86518199","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-25DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-095943
G. Inglis, Tripti Bhattacharya, J. Hemingway, Emily H. Hollingsworth, S. Feakins, J. Tierney
The response of the terrestrial biosphere to warming remains one of the most poorly understood and quantified aspects of the climate system. One way to test the behavior of the Earth system in warm climate states is to examine the geological record. The abundance, distribution, and/or isotopic composition of source-specific organic molecules (biomarkers) have been used to reconstruct terrestrial paleoenvironmental change over a range of geological timescales. Here, we review new or recently improved biomarker approaches for reconstructing ( a) physical climate variables (land temperature, rainfall), ( b) ecosystem state variables (vegetation, fire regime), and ( c) biogeochemical variables (soil residence time, methane cycling). This review encompasses a range of key compound classes (e.g., lipids, lignin, and carbohydrates). In each section, we explore the concept behind key biomarker approaches and discuss their successes as paleoenvironmental indicators. We emphasize that analyzing several biomarkers in tandem can provide unique insights into the Earth system. ▪ Biomarkers can be used to reconstruct terrestrial environmental change over a range of geological timescales. ▪ Analyzing several biomarkers in tandem can provide unique insights into the Earth system. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Biomarker Approaches for Reconstructing Terrestrial Environmental Change","authors":"G. Inglis, Tripti Bhattacharya, J. Hemingway, Emily H. Hollingsworth, S. Feakins, J. Tierney","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-095943","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-095943","url":null,"abstract":"The response of the terrestrial biosphere to warming remains one of the most poorly understood and quantified aspects of the climate system. One way to test the behavior of the Earth system in warm climate states is to examine the geological record. The abundance, distribution, and/or isotopic composition of source-specific organic molecules (biomarkers) have been used to reconstruct terrestrial paleoenvironmental change over a range of geological timescales. Here, we review new or recently improved biomarker approaches for reconstructing ( a) physical climate variables (land temperature, rainfall), ( b) ecosystem state variables (vegetation, fire regime), and ( c) biogeochemical variables (soil residence time, methane cycling). This review encompasses a range of key compound classes (e.g., lipids, lignin, and carbohydrates). In each section, we explore the concept behind key biomarker approaches and discuss their successes as paleoenvironmental indicators. We emphasize that analyzing several biomarkers in tandem can provide unique insights into the Earth system. ▪ Biomarkers can be used to reconstruct terrestrial environmental change over a range of geological timescales. ▪ Analyzing several biomarkers in tandem can provide unique insights into the Earth system. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88790993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-25DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-083704
R. Katz, David C. Jones, John Frederick Rudge, T. Keller
Melt extraction from the partially molten mantle is among the fundamental processes shaping the solid Earth today and over geological time. A diversity of properties and mechanisms contribute to the physics of melt extraction. We review progress of the past ∼25 years of research in this area, with a focus on understanding the speed and style of buoyancy-driven melt extraction. Observations of U-series disequilibria in young lavas and the surge of deglacial volcanism in Iceland suggest this speed is rapid compared to that predicted by the null hypothesis of diffuse porous flow. The discrepancy indicates that the style of extraction is channelized. We discuss how channelization is sensitive to mechanical and thermochemical properties and feedbacks, and to asthenospheric heterogeneity. We review the grain-scale physics that underpins these properties and hence determines the physical behavior at much larger scales. We then discuss how the speed of melt extraction is crucial to predicting the magmatic response to glacial and sea-level variations. Finally, we assess the frontier of current research and identify areas where significant advances are expected over the next 25 years. In particular, we highlight the coupling of melt extraction with more realistic models of mantle thermochemistry and rheological properties. This coupling will be crucial in understanding complex settings such as subduction zones. ▪ Mantle melt extraction shapes Earth today and over geological time. ▪ Observations, lab experiments, and theory indicate that melt ascends through the mantle at speeds ∼30 m/year by reactively channelized porous flow. ▪ Variations in sea level and glacial ice loading can cause significant changes in melt supply to submarine and subaerial volcanoes. ▪ Fluid-driven fracture is important in the lithosphere and, perhaps, in the mantle wedge of subduction zones, but remains a challenge to model. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Physics of Melt Extraction from the Mantle: Speed and Style","authors":"R. Katz, David C. Jones, John Frederick Rudge, T. Keller","doi":"10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-083704","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-083704","url":null,"abstract":"Melt extraction from the partially molten mantle is among the fundamental processes shaping the solid Earth today and over geological time. A diversity of properties and mechanisms contribute to the physics of melt extraction. We review progress of the past ∼25 years of research in this area, with a focus on understanding the speed and style of buoyancy-driven melt extraction. Observations of U-series disequilibria in young lavas and the surge of deglacial volcanism in Iceland suggest this speed is rapid compared to that predicted by the null hypothesis of diffuse porous flow. The discrepancy indicates that the style of extraction is channelized. We discuss how channelization is sensitive to mechanical and thermochemical properties and feedbacks, and to asthenospheric heterogeneity. We review the grain-scale physics that underpins these properties and hence determines the physical behavior at much larger scales. We then discuss how the speed of melt extraction is crucial to predicting the magmatic response to glacial and sea-level variations. Finally, we assess the frontier of current research and identify areas where significant advances are expected over the next 25 years. In particular, we highlight the coupling of melt extraction with more realistic models of mantle thermochemistry and rheological properties. This coupling will be crucial in understanding complex settings such as subduction zones. ▪ Mantle melt extraction shapes Earth today and over geological time. ▪ Observations, lab experiments, and theory indicate that melt ascends through the mantle at speeds ∼30 m/year by reactively channelized porous flow. ▪ Variations in sea level and glacial ice loading can cause significant changes in melt supply to submarine and subaerial volcanoes. ▪ Fluid-driven fracture is important in the lithosphere and, perhaps, in the mantle wedge of subduction zones, but remains a challenge to model. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":8034,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.9,"publicationDate":"2022-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83761620","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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