Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD) can present unique behavioral and academic challenges within the school environment. The Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) move- ments have sought to formalize intervention systems to address the needs of all children. An integral component is the need for initial and ongoing assessment strategies to guide decision making. The assessment strategies reviewed were selected to provide a menu of available resources to assist in matching assessment methods to levels of student needs within the RTI and PBIS framework.
{"title":"Monitoring Students with ADHD within the RTI Framework.","authors":"Dana L. Haraway","doi":"10.1037/H0100720","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100720","url":null,"abstract":"Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD) can present unique behavioral and academic challenges within the school environment. The Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) move- ments have sought to formalize intervention systems to address the needs of all children. An integral component is the need for initial and ongoing assessment strategies to guide decision making. The assessment strategies reviewed were selected to provide a menu of available resources to assist in matching assessment methods to levels of student needs within the RTI and PBIS framework.","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"17-21"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474722","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Food selectivity is the most commonly reported and researched feeding problem in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (Seiverling, Williams, Ward-Horner, & Sturmey, 2011). Children have been found to be selective by food type, texture, color, temperature, freshness, as well as other dimensions. In children with ASD, eating a narrow range of foods has been shown to be associated with a variety of problems such as reduced bone cortical thickness (Hediger, England, Mollov, Yu, & Manning-Courtney, 2008), Vitamin A, D, and C deficiencies (Clark, 1993; Duggen, Westra, & Rosenberg, 2007; Uyanik, Dogangun, Kavaalp, Kormaz, & Dervent, 2006), and iron deficiencies (Latif, Heinz, & Cook, 2002). In addition, Lockner, Crowe, and Skipper (2008) found that parents of children with ASD were more likely to give their children non-prescription vitamin/mineral supplements when compared with parents of children without ASD whose children were not as picky and resistant to trying to new foods. This suggests that parents of children with ASD may be more concerned regarding inadequacies in their children's diet variety. Parents may also find mealtimes stressful when attempting to encourage a child with food selectivity to take bites of new or non-preferred foods, as often children will engage in high levels of disruptive behaviors when their preferred foods are not presented (Williams & Seiverling, 2010). The interventions described in studies of food selectivity involve multiple treatment components. These components often include the following: a) stimulus fading combined with reinforcement schedule thinning, in which some dimension of the meal is gradually changed, such as portion sizes being gradually increased; b) differential reinforcement, in which inappropriate behavior is ignored and child acceptance of the presented bites of food is reinforced with verbal praise or access to tangible reinforcers; and c) escape extinction (EE), in which the child is required to consume either a specified number of bites before exiting the eating area, and escape-maintained problem behavior does not lead to termination of the meal. The EE procedure often occurs in one of two forms: (1) non-removal of the spoon, which involves presenting the food until the child accepts it; or (2) physical guidance, which involves physically prompting the child to take a bite. Most intervention studies for food selectivity, as well as for food refusal, have implemented treatment packages involving differential reinforcement, fading, and some form of EE (Anderson & McMillan, 2001; Freeman & Piazza, 1998; Najdowski, Wallace, Doney, & Ghezzi, 2003; McCartney, Anderson, & English, 2005). Further, component analyses have demonstrated that although positive reinforcement is sometimes sufficient, EE is often a necessary component of effective treatments for food selectivity and food refusal (Cooper et al., 1995; Hoch, et al., 2001; Penrod, Wallace, Reagon, Betz, & Higbee, 2010). Although often
{"title":"A Clinical Demonstration of a Treatment Package for Food Selectivity","authors":"Laura Seiverling, Amy Kokitus, K. E. Williams","doi":"10.1037/H0100719","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100719","url":null,"abstract":"Food selectivity is the most commonly reported and researched feeding problem in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (Seiverling, Williams, Ward-Horner, & Sturmey, 2011). Children have been found to be selective by food type, texture, color, temperature, freshness, as well as other dimensions. In children with ASD, eating a narrow range of foods has been shown to be associated with a variety of problems such as reduced bone cortical thickness (Hediger, England, Mollov, Yu, & Manning-Courtney, 2008), Vitamin A, D, and C deficiencies (Clark, 1993; Duggen, Westra, & Rosenberg, 2007; Uyanik, Dogangun, Kavaalp, Kormaz, & Dervent, 2006), and iron deficiencies (Latif, Heinz, & Cook, 2002). In addition, Lockner, Crowe, and Skipper (2008) found that parents of children with ASD were more likely to give their children non-prescription vitamin/mineral supplements when compared with parents of children without ASD whose children were not as picky and resistant to trying to new foods. This suggests that parents of children with ASD may be more concerned regarding inadequacies in their children's diet variety. Parents may also find mealtimes stressful when attempting to encourage a child with food selectivity to take bites of new or non-preferred foods, as often children will engage in high levels of disruptive behaviors when their preferred foods are not presented (Williams & Seiverling, 2010). The interventions described in studies of food selectivity involve multiple treatment components. These components often include the following: a) stimulus fading combined with reinforcement schedule thinning, in which some dimension of the meal is gradually changed, such as portion sizes being gradually increased; b) differential reinforcement, in which inappropriate behavior is ignored and child acceptance of the presented bites of food is reinforced with verbal praise or access to tangible reinforcers; and c) escape extinction (EE), in which the child is required to consume either a specified number of bites before exiting the eating area, and escape-maintained problem behavior does not lead to termination of the meal. The EE procedure often occurs in one of two forms: (1) non-removal of the spoon, which involves presenting the food until the child accepts it; or (2) physical guidance, which involves physically prompting the child to take a bite. Most intervention studies for food selectivity, as well as for food refusal, have implemented treatment packages involving differential reinforcement, fading, and some form of EE (Anderson & McMillan, 2001; Freeman & Piazza, 1998; Najdowski, Wallace, Doney, & Ghezzi, 2003; McCartney, Anderson, & English, 2005). Further, component analyses have demonstrated that although positive reinforcement is sometimes sufficient, EE is often a necessary component of effective treatments for food selectivity and food refusal (Cooper et al., 1995; Hoch, et al., 2001; Penrod, Wallace, Reagon, Betz, & Higbee, 2010). Although often","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"11-16"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474374","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Within behavioral psychology, self control can be defined as choosing a larger, but more delayed, reinforcing consequence over a smaller, but more immediately available, reinforcing consequence (see Logue, 1995, for a review). Making the opposite choice, that is choosing the smaller, immediately available consequence over a larger, more delayed reinforcing consequence, would be considered an impulsive response. Although there is nothing inherently good or bad about making either type of response, researchers and practitioners have certainly been interested in promoting the display of self control. Reasons for this promotion include the finding that children who display the ability to make a self-control response experience better life outcomes (e.g., greater academic achievement) than do children who display impulsive responding (e.g., Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriquez, 1989). More specifically, preschool children who could refrain from eating a marshmallow in return for getting multiple marshmallows at a later time demonstrated higher scholastic performance and social skills as adolescents than did preschool children who displayed the impulsive response and ate the immediately available marshmallow. A concept related to impulsive responding is temporal, or delay, discounting. Delay discounting refers to the process by which the subjective value of a reinforcing outcome is diminished because its delivery is delayed. The typical finding is that the longer the delay to the delivery of the outcome, the lower the subjective value the individual places on that outcome at the given moment (see Madden & Bickel, 2010, for discussion on the measurement, analysis, and scope of delay discounting). How steeply the subjective value of the outcome decreases as the delay to the full outcome is increased is referred to as the "rate" at which that particular individual discounts that out come. (1) The rate of discounting has also been used as a behavioral measure of impulsivity. Rates of delay discounting have interested researchers because they have been shown to be associated with a number of behavioral disorders such as attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder (see Williams, 2010) and substance abuse (see Yi, Mitchell, & Bickel, 2010). Steep rates of delay discounting have also been associated with pathological gambling (Dixon, Marley, & Jacobs, 2003; see Petry & Madden, 2010). This association may not be surprising, given that pathological gambling can be found listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) under impulse-control disorders that are not otherwise classified. This classification also includes a number of disorders that were at one time considered as compulsive behaviors (e.g., addiction; see Hollander, Berlin, & Stein, 2011, for a discussion). In fact, one can still find references in the literature to terms such as compulsive gambling (e.g., Munoz, Chebat, & Suissa, 2010). Although one c
{"title":"Aspects of compulsiveness are inversely related to rates of delay discounting.","authors":"J. Weatherly","doi":"10.1037/H0100721","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100721","url":null,"abstract":"Within behavioral psychology, self control can be defined as choosing a larger, but more delayed, reinforcing consequence over a smaller, but more immediately available, reinforcing consequence (see Logue, 1995, for a review). Making the opposite choice, that is choosing the smaller, immediately available consequence over a larger, more delayed reinforcing consequence, would be considered an impulsive response. Although there is nothing inherently good or bad about making either type of response, researchers and practitioners have certainly been interested in promoting the display of self control. Reasons for this promotion include the finding that children who display the ability to make a self-control response experience better life outcomes (e.g., greater academic achievement) than do children who display impulsive responding (e.g., Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriquez, 1989). More specifically, preschool children who could refrain from eating a marshmallow in return for getting multiple marshmallows at a later time demonstrated higher scholastic performance and social skills as adolescents than did preschool children who displayed the impulsive response and ate the immediately available marshmallow. A concept related to impulsive responding is temporal, or delay, discounting. Delay discounting refers to the process by which the subjective value of a reinforcing outcome is diminished because its delivery is delayed. The typical finding is that the longer the delay to the delivery of the outcome, the lower the subjective value the individual places on that outcome at the given moment (see Madden & Bickel, 2010, for discussion on the measurement, analysis, and scope of delay discounting). How steeply the subjective value of the outcome decreases as the delay to the full outcome is increased is referred to as the \"rate\" at which that particular individual discounts that out come. (1) The rate of discounting has also been used as a behavioral measure of impulsivity. Rates of delay discounting have interested researchers because they have been shown to be associated with a number of behavioral disorders such as attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder (see Williams, 2010) and substance abuse (see Yi, Mitchell, & Bickel, 2010). Steep rates of delay discounting have also been associated with pathological gambling (Dixon, Marley, & Jacobs, 2003; see Petry & Madden, 2010). This association may not be surprising, given that pathological gambling can be found listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) under impulse-control disorders that are not otherwise classified. This classification also includes a number of disorders that were at one time considered as compulsive behaviors (e.g., addiction; see Hollander, Berlin, & Stein, 2011, for a discussion). In fact, one can still find references in the literature to terms such as compulsive gambling (e.g., Munoz, Chebat, & Suissa, 2010). Although one c","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"8 1","pages":"22-26"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474921","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) is the melding of key components of Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Functional Analytic Psychotherapy and Mindfulness, and Meditation from ancient Buddhist practices. MDT was developed to address complex presenting problems accompanying the treatment of male adolescents (Apsche, Bass, & Siv, 2006). Among the variety of adolescent disorders, MDT has proven to be efficacious in working with behavioral expressions of misaligned emotional states, including anxiety and traumatic stress (Apsche, Bass, & Siv, 2006; Apsche & Bass, 2006), physical aggression (Apsche, Bass, & Houston, 2007), and inappropriate sexual behaviors (Apsche, Bass, Jennings, Murphy, Hunter, & Siv, 2005). The MDT method suggests that the adolescent male develops beliefs, based on life experiences and interactions with others that he utilizes to inform his decisions and choices. Thus, MDT focuses on providing individuals with a new understanding of the beliefs that continue to contribute to unhealthy and misguided behaviors. For example, aggression is viewed as a maladaptive response to a belief that is unbalanced. It is reinforced by an immediate reduction in emotional arousal and/ or the environment's response (Apsche & DiMeo, in press). A key to opening the door to this innovative perception of the world is the Validation, Clarification and Redirection (VCR) intervention. VCR provides the adolescent with the feedback that his way of viewing his world is reasonable given his set of experiences (validation), but also provides that those experiences might have skewed his view of the world (clarification) and it is possible that a less extreme or more balanced approach is more realistic (redirection). MDT gains support as an efficacious intervention as evidence suggests that the tools developed via MDT sessions reduces the level and frequency of aggressive incidents, sexual behaviors, and emotional dysregulation (Apsche, Bass, & Siv, 2006; Apsche & Bass, 2006; Apsche, Bass, & Houston, 2007). These studies also demonstrate MDT exercises effectiveness across a wide variety of behavioral outcomes. Across these challenging behaviors, the development of the use of VCR appears to enable adolescents to make more balanced behavioral choices. The following analysis draws from the body of evidence, which supports the effectiveness of MDT to clarify which aspect of the intervention is effectuating change, focusing on the implementation of the VCR intervention. We attempted to follow Kazdin's (2007), and Kazdin & Nock's (2003) suggestions throughout our analysis of the MDT data in this article. There continues to be a consensus of agreement that it is imperative to systematically evaluate treatment approaches and the processes and components through which treatments have demonstrated their effect (Kazdin, 2007. The aforementioned consensus of agreement has resulted in research focusing on the processes o
{"title":"Mediation analysis of Mode Deactivation Therapy, (MDT).","authors":"J. Apsche, Christine K. Bass, B. Backlund","doi":"10.1037/H0100723","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100723","url":null,"abstract":"Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) is the melding of key components of Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Functional Analytic Psychotherapy and Mindfulness, and Meditation from ancient Buddhist practices. MDT was developed to address complex presenting problems accompanying the treatment of male adolescents (Apsche, Bass, & Siv, 2006). Among the variety of adolescent disorders, MDT has proven to be efficacious in working with behavioral expressions of misaligned emotional states, including anxiety and traumatic stress (Apsche, Bass, & Siv, 2006; Apsche & Bass, 2006), physical aggression (Apsche, Bass, & Houston, 2007), and inappropriate sexual behaviors (Apsche, Bass, Jennings, Murphy, Hunter, & Siv, 2005). The MDT method suggests that the adolescent male develops beliefs, based on life experiences and interactions with others that he utilizes to inform his decisions and choices. Thus, MDT focuses on providing individuals with a new understanding of the beliefs that continue to contribute to unhealthy and misguided behaviors. For example, aggression is viewed as a maladaptive response to a belief that is unbalanced. It is reinforced by an immediate reduction in emotional arousal and/ or the environment's response (Apsche & DiMeo, in press). A key to opening the door to this innovative perception of the world is the Validation, Clarification and Redirection (VCR) intervention. VCR provides the adolescent with the feedback that his way of viewing his world is reasonable given his set of experiences (validation), but also provides that those experiences might have skewed his view of the world (clarification) and it is possible that a less extreme or more balanced approach is more realistic (redirection). MDT gains support as an efficacious intervention as evidence suggests that the tools developed via MDT sessions reduces the level and frequency of aggressive incidents, sexual behaviors, and emotional dysregulation (Apsche, Bass, & Siv, 2006; Apsche & Bass, 2006; Apsche, Bass, & Houston, 2007). These studies also demonstrate MDT exercises effectiveness across a wide variety of behavioral outcomes. Across these challenging behaviors, the development of the use of VCR appears to enable adolescents to make more balanced behavioral choices. The following analysis draws from the body of evidence, which supports the effectiveness of MDT to clarify which aspect of the intervention is effectuating change, focusing on the implementation of the VCR intervention. We attempted to follow Kazdin's (2007), and Kazdin & Nock's (2003) suggestions throughout our analysis of the MDT data in this article. There continues to be a consensus of agreement that it is imperative to systematically evaluate treatment approaches and the processes and components through which treatments have demonstrated their effect (Kazdin, 2007. The aforementioned consensus of agreement has resulted in research focusing on the processes o","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"29 1","pages":"2-10"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474994","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
B. Phelps, Lyndsay Doyle-Lunders, Amanda Harsin-Waite, Nicole L. Hofman, Lacy M. Knutson
While classical conditioning is no doubt a standard part of most if not all introductory psychology courses, habituation is less prevalent as a topic. A search of Teaching of Psychology and others sources uncovered classroom demonstrations of classical conditioning processes, (Gibb, 1983; Kohn and Kalat, 1992; Sparrow & Fernald, 1989; Vernoy, 1987) while no examples of demonstrations of habituation were found. Most psychology students are familiar with the startle reflex, which is "a universal and phylogenetically ancient reflex," (Howard & Ford, 1992, p. 695); it is one of the innate, defensive reflexes of humans and other vertebrates that occur in response to unconditioned eliciting stimuli such as an unexpected loud noise. A startle reflex that is elicited by an unpredicted noise is referred to as an acoustic or audiogenic startle reflex, (Wilkens, Hallett, & Wess, 1986; Brown, Rothwell, Thompson, Britton, Day, & Marsden, 1991; Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2008). Habituation is the process by which such reflexes are modified by experience; hence, it is a basic form of learning (Bouton, 2007; Gluck et al., 2008). A normal audiogenic startle reflex was first quantifiably studied by Jacobsen (1926), with further study by Landis and Hunt, (1936, 1937, 1939). The acoustic startle reflex consists of eye movements, especially blinking, facial grimacing, contractions of flexor muscles in the neck, trunk and elbows, with extensor muscles being activated much less often. Movements of the head and the remainder of the body are less reliably involved (Brown et al., 1991; Wilkens et al., 1986). Habituation occurred for all of these components with the exception of blinking (Wilkens et al., 1986). Howard and Ford (1992) observed considerable variation between individuals in the topography and duration of the startle reflex. As noted by Wilkens et al., (1986) the startle reflex is subject to habituation. Typically, an unconditioned response or reflex that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus will show habituation if the stimulus is repeated (Gluck et al., 2008). That is, measures of the response will show orderly decreases in magnitude as the stimulus is repeatedly applied. More simply put, habituation is the process by which a stimulus loses its attention-grabbing properties, i.e., its "novelty," and decreases in responsiveness to the stimulus are seen when the stimulus is presented repeatedly or for an extended period. Through the process of habituation, an organism ceases to engage in attending or other responses to the stimulus; the stimulus comes to be ignored (Bouton, 2007; Gluck et al., 2008). To illustrate habituation, the contingencies needed to elicit an acoustic startle reflex were arranged and repeated to record the habituation of the various responses. * METHODOLOGY Due to difficulties with an audience observing a person undergo a startle reflex, the demonstration to be described was conducted in another setting and digitally videotaped for late
虽然经典条件反射毫无疑问是大多数(如果不是全部的话)心理学入门课程的标准部分，但习惯化作为一个主题却不那么普遍。对《心理学教学》和其他资料的研究揭示了经典条件反射过程的课堂演示(Gibb, 1983;Kohn and Kalat, 1992;Sparrow & Fernald, 1989;Vernoy, 1987)，而没有发现习惯化的例子。大多数心理学专业的学生都熟悉惊吓反射，这是“一种普遍的、在系统发育上古老的反射”(Howard & Ford, 1992, p. 695);这是人类和其他脊椎动物的一种天生的、防御性的反射，发生在对无条件的刺激的反应中，比如意想不到的大声噪音。由不可预测的噪音引起的惊吓反射被称为声学或听源性惊吓反射(Wilkens, Hallett， & Wess, 1986;布朗，罗斯威尔，汤普森，布里顿，戴，马斯登，1991;Gluck, Mercado， & Myers, 2008)。习惯化是这种反射被经验修正的过程;因此，它是一种基本的学习形式(Bouton, 2007;Gluck et al.， 2008)。Jacobsen(1926)首先对正常的听原惊吓反射进行了定量研究，Landis和Hunt(1936、1937、1939)进一步进行了研究。声惊反射包括眼球运动，尤其是眨眼、面部鬼脸、颈部、躯干和肘部屈肌的收缩，伸肌的激活频率要低得多。头部和身体其他部分的运动不太可靠地参与其中(Brown et al.， 1991;Wilkens et al.， 1986)。除了眨眼之外，所有这些组成部分都发生了习惯化(Wilkens et al.， 1986)。Howard和Ford(1992)观察到个体在惊吓反射的地形和持续时间上有相当大的差异。正如Wilkens等人(1986)所指出的那样，惊吓反射受习惯化的影响。通常，由非条件刺激引起的非条件反应或反射，如果刺激被重复，就会表现出习惯化(Gluck et al.， 2008)。也就是说，当刺激被反复施加时，对反应的测量将显示出有序的强度下降。更简单地说，习惯化是一个刺激失去其吸引注意力的特性的过程，即它的“新颖性”，当刺激重复出现或长时间出现时，对刺激的反应就会减少。通过习惯化过程，生物体停止参与对刺激的响应或其他反应;刺激逐渐被忽略(Bouton, 2007;Gluck et al.， 2008)。为了说明习惯，需要引起声惊吓反射的偶然事件被安排和重复，以记录各种反应的习惯化。由于观众很难观察到一个人经历惊吓反射，所以要描述的演示在另一个环境中进行，并以数字录像带的方式进行，以便以后在课堂上使用。在任何观察之前，方案获得了南达科他州立大学机构审查委员会的批准。四名研究助理参与其中，其中一人自愿接受录像并暴露于诱发性刺激;我们最初需要确定一个有效的非条件刺激(US)来引发惊吓反射，指定的志愿者离开房间。我们最初按照Vernoy(1987)的建议测试了气球被爆开，但发现这一事件并不能有效地引起显著的反应。经过一些试验和错误，我们决定用标准重量的羊角锤敲击金属桌子，在大约1米的距离上引起了明显可观察到的惊吓反射。一个声音分贝计让我们可以量化分贝水平，大约80分贝。为了产生快速的习惯，使用了15秒的刺激间隔(ISI)。．..
{"title":"Demonstrating habituation of a startle response to loud noise.","authors":"B. Phelps, Lyndsay Doyle-Lunders, Amanda Harsin-Waite, Nicole L. Hofman, Lacy M. Knutson","doi":"10.1037/H0100714","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100714","url":null,"abstract":"While classical conditioning is no doubt a standard part of most if not all introductory psychology courses, habituation is less prevalent as a topic. A search of Teaching of Psychology and others sources uncovered classroom demonstrations of classical conditioning processes, (Gibb, 1983; Kohn and Kalat, 1992; Sparrow & Fernald, 1989; Vernoy, 1987) while no examples of demonstrations of habituation were found. Most psychology students are familiar with the startle reflex, which is \"a universal and phylogenetically ancient reflex,\" (Howard & Ford, 1992, p. 695); it is one of the innate, defensive reflexes of humans and other vertebrates that occur in response to unconditioned eliciting stimuli such as an unexpected loud noise. A startle reflex that is elicited by an unpredicted noise is referred to as an acoustic or audiogenic startle reflex, (Wilkens, Hallett, & Wess, 1986; Brown, Rothwell, Thompson, Britton, Day, & Marsden, 1991; Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2008). Habituation is the process by which such reflexes are modified by experience; hence, it is a basic form of learning (Bouton, 2007; Gluck et al., 2008). A normal audiogenic startle reflex was first quantifiably studied by Jacobsen (1926), with further study by Landis and Hunt, (1936, 1937, 1939). The acoustic startle reflex consists of eye movements, especially blinking, facial grimacing, contractions of flexor muscles in the neck, trunk and elbows, with extensor muscles being activated much less often. Movements of the head and the remainder of the body are less reliably involved (Brown et al., 1991; Wilkens et al., 1986). Habituation occurred for all of these components with the exception of blinking (Wilkens et al., 1986). Howard and Ford (1992) observed considerable variation between individuals in the topography and duration of the startle reflex. As noted by Wilkens et al., (1986) the startle reflex is subject to habituation. Typically, an unconditioned response or reflex that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus will show habituation if the stimulus is repeated (Gluck et al., 2008). That is, measures of the response will show orderly decreases in magnitude as the stimulus is repeatedly applied. More simply put, habituation is the process by which a stimulus loses its attention-grabbing properties, i.e., its \"novelty,\" and decreases in responsiveness to the stimulus are seen when the stimulus is presented repeatedly or for an extended period. Through the process of habituation, an organism ceases to engage in attending or other responses to the stimulus; the stimulus comes to be ignored (Bouton, 2007; Gluck et al., 2008). To illustrate habituation, the contingencies needed to elicit an acoustic startle reflex were arranged and repeated to record the habituation of the various responses. * METHODOLOGY Due to difficulties with an audience observing a person undergo a startle reflex, the demonstration to be described was conducted in another setting and digitally videotaped for late","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"17-19"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
* ABOUT MORNINGSIDE ACADEMY Morningside Academy is a behaviorally based laboratory school (Dewey, 1990a, 1990b) that helps elementary and middle school students to catch up and get ahead. It was founded and is currently directed by Kent Johnson. Most of its students did not perform to their potential in their previous schools. Entering students typically score in the first and second quartiles on standardized achievement tests in reading, language, and mathematics. Some have diagnosed learning disabilities; others are labeled as having attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Some lag behind their peer group for no "diagnosed" reason. Students' IQs range from low average to well above average. A small percentage of students have poor relations with family members and friends, but most do not. Morningside is a school for children with academic behavior problems, not a school for children with social and interpersonal behavior problems. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: FOUNDATIONS Morningside Academy's Foundations program offers a full day of foundational skills that include reading, writing, math, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Elementary school-aged students enroll in the Foundations program for one to three years or more to catch up to grade level. About half of our middle school-aged students--those who enter without these foundational skills and who require a full day of foundation skills to make a year's progress in school--also enroll in the Foundations program. Many Foundations students who catch up to grade level extend their stay to achieve beyond their grade level. Morningside Academy offers a money-back guarantee for progressing two years in one in the skill of greatest deficit. In 31 years, Morningside Academy has returned less than one percent of school-year tuition. At Morningside Academy, we construct behavioral repertoires to eliminate (a) deficient basic academic skills, such as reading, writing, and mathematics; (b) deficient learning skills, such as goal setting, listening, noticing, reasoning, thinking, studying, and organizing; and (c) deficient performance skills; that is, skills in performing tasks in a timely, accurate, and organized manner, without disrupting others or causing oneself undue grief. The Morningside program focuses upon these three key academic, learning, and performance repertoires to increase the intensity and explicitness of instruction. The model at Morningside is in direct contrast to compensatory models that teach children to sidestep their disabilities. Instead, at Morningside, we teach students to face their behavioral deficits head on. The Foundations academic program focuses on reading, writing, and mathematics, including the language, facts, skills, concepts, principles, problem solving, and organizational aspects of each. Literature, social studies, and science provide the content for teaching these foundations in the sense that students learn to read and write about pa
{"title":"From the Laboratory to the Field and Back Again: Morningside Academy's 32 Years of Improving Students' Academic Performance","authors":"Kent Johnson, E. Street","doi":"10.1037/H0100715","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100715","url":null,"abstract":"* ABOUT MORNINGSIDE ACADEMY Morningside Academy is a behaviorally based laboratory school (Dewey, 1990a, 1990b) that helps elementary and middle school students to catch up and get ahead. It was founded and is currently directed by Kent Johnson. Most of its students did not perform to their potential in their previous schools. Entering students typically score in the first and second quartiles on standardized achievement tests in reading, language, and mathematics. Some have diagnosed learning disabilities; others are labeled as having attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Some lag behind their peer group for no \"diagnosed\" reason. Students' IQs range from low average to well above average. A small percentage of students have poor relations with family members and friends, but most do not. Morningside is a school for children with academic behavior problems, not a school for children with social and interpersonal behavior problems. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: FOUNDATIONS Morningside Academy's Foundations program offers a full day of foundational skills that include reading, writing, math, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Elementary school-aged students enroll in the Foundations program for one to three years or more to catch up to grade level. About half of our middle school-aged students--those who enter without these foundational skills and who require a full day of foundation skills to make a year's progress in school--also enroll in the Foundations program. Many Foundations students who catch up to grade level extend their stay to achieve beyond their grade level. Morningside Academy offers a money-back guarantee for progressing two years in one in the skill of greatest deficit. In 31 years, Morningside Academy has returned less than one percent of school-year tuition. At Morningside Academy, we construct behavioral repertoires to eliminate (a) deficient basic academic skills, such as reading, writing, and mathematics; (b) deficient learning skills, such as goal setting, listening, noticing, reasoning, thinking, studying, and organizing; and (c) deficient performance skills; that is, skills in performing tasks in a timely, accurate, and organized manner, without disrupting others or causing oneself undue grief. The Morningside program focuses upon these three key academic, learning, and performance repertoires to increase the intensity and explicitness of instruction. The model at Morningside is in direct contrast to compensatory models that teach children to sidestep their disabilities. Instead, at Morningside, we teach students to face their behavioral deficits head on. The Foundations academic program focuses on reading, writing, and mathematics, including the language, facts, skills, concepts, principles, problem solving, and organizational aspects of each. Literature, social studies, and science provide the content for teaching these foundations in the sense that students learn to read and write about pa","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"20-40"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474108","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper presents the empirical basis for the phenomena known as stimulus overselectivity. Stimulus overselectivity involves responding on the basis of a restricted range of elements or features that are discriminative for reinforcement. The manner
{"title":"Stimulus overselectivity: Empirical basis and diagnostic methods.","authors":"E. Cipani","doi":"10.1037/H0100712","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100712","url":null,"abstract":"This paper presents the empirical basis for the phenomena known as stimulus overselectivity. Stimulus overselectivity involves responding on the basis of a restricted range of elements or features that are discriminative for reinforcement. The manner","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"3-11"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474032","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Guided notes were employed in two undergraduate Psychology courses involving 71 students. The study design utilized an alternating treatments format to compare Traditional Lectures with Guided Notes lectures. In one of the two courses, tests were administered after each class lecture, whereas the same type of test was administered at the beginning of the next week’s class for the second course. Regardless of test delay, the Guided Notes condition was associated with substantially higher
{"title":"The Relative Effects of Traditional Lectures and Guided Notes Lectures on University Student Test Scores.","authors":"W. Williams, T. M. Weil, James C. K. Porter","doi":"10.1037/H0100713","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100713","url":null,"abstract":"Guided notes were employed in two undergraduate Psychology courses involving 71 students. The study design utilized an alternating treatments format to compare Traditional Lectures with Guided Notes lectures. In one of the two courses, tests were administered after each class lecture, whereas the same type of test was administered at the beginning of the next week’s class for the second course. Regardless of test delay, the Guided Notes condition was associated with substantially higher","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"12-16"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474046","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
INTRODUCTION Behavior analysis and education are a natural fit. Basic behavioral principles are ideal tools for teaching. All applied behavior analytic interventions with humans fall under the education umbrella in a general sense, since they are aimed at producing more socially adaptive behavior. For this special issue, however, the editors placed an emphasis on the direct applications of behavioral principles within the education system. Early in the development of behavior analysis, researchers took an interest in the application of behavioral principles to education. Building upon Sidney Pressey's early work with teaching technology, Skinner developed a teaching machine in the late 1950's that allowed a learner to receive individualized instruction with immediate performance feedback (Skinner, 1961). Skinner expanded on this innovation by developing a system of programmed instruction with James Holland (Holland & Skinner, 1961). The system, based on self-directed learning and immediate contingencies of reinforcement, became the foundation for applied behavior analytic work in education and was formalized in Skinner's 1968 book The Technology of Teaching. Sid Bijou (1970) argued that behavior analysis integrated well with the goals of the educational system by providing a robust set of empirically supported principles and a clear single subject research methodology. Bijou's work with children with intellectual disabilities during the late 1950's and 1960's offered strong initial evidence of the utility of behavioral interventions in educational settings. In addition, his methodological innovations set the stage for future research in educational settings (Wesolowski, 2002). In the inaugural volume of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Fred Keller (1968) introduced his personalized system of instruction that emphasized mastery based instructional pacing and frequent student interactions with the instructor and peers. Keller's article entitled "Good-Bye, Teacher," made the case for the teacher's role as an educational engineer and contingency manager and downplayed the use of lecture as a means of delivering information. Ogden Lindsley's (1992) precision teaching model introduced the standard celeration chart as a means for assessing changes in fluency as students progress through a structured curriculum. In addition, Zig Engelmann's direct instruction model, based on highly scripted teaching interactions, showed the effectiveness of a behaviorally based curriculum on a large-scale (Engelmann, Becker, Carnine, G identical feature control, irrelevant feature control, and incomplete stimulus control, and discusses implications for the design of instructional systems. Austin (2000) noted a "relative scarcity of empirical validation for behavioral education methods at the college level" (p. …
{"title":"Editorials: Special Issue on Behavior Analysis & Education","authors":"Michael J. Bordieri, K. Kellum, K. Wilson","doi":"10.1037/H0100716","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100716","url":null,"abstract":"INTRODUCTION Behavior analysis and education are a natural fit. Basic behavioral principles are ideal tools for teaching. All applied behavior analytic interventions with humans fall under the education umbrella in a general sense, since they are aimed at producing more socially adaptive behavior. For this special issue, however, the editors placed an emphasis on the direct applications of behavioral principles within the education system. Early in the development of behavior analysis, researchers took an interest in the application of behavioral principles to education. Building upon Sidney Pressey's early work with teaching technology, Skinner developed a teaching machine in the late 1950's that allowed a learner to receive individualized instruction with immediate performance feedback (Skinner, 1961). Skinner expanded on this innovation by developing a system of programmed instruction with James Holland (Holland & Skinner, 1961). The system, based on self-directed learning and immediate contingencies of reinforcement, became the foundation for applied behavior analytic work in education and was formalized in Skinner's 1968 book The Technology of Teaching. Sid Bijou (1970) argued that behavior analysis integrated well with the goals of the educational system by providing a robust set of empirically supported principles and a clear single subject research methodology. Bijou's work with children with intellectual disabilities during the late 1950's and 1960's offered strong initial evidence of the utility of behavioral interventions in educational settings. In addition, his methodological innovations set the stage for future research in educational settings (Wesolowski, 2002). In the inaugural volume of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Fred Keller (1968) introduced his personalized system of instruction that emphasized mastery based instructional pacing and frequent student interactions with the instructor and peers. Keller's article entitled \"Good-Bye, Teacher,\" made the case for the teacher's role as an educational engineer and contingency manager and downplayed the use of lecture as a means of delivering information. Ogden Lindsley's (1992) precision teaching model introduced the standard celeration chart as a means for assessing changes in fluency as students progress through a structured curriculum. In addition, Zig Engelmann's direct instruction model, based on highly scripted teaching interactions, showed the effectiveness of a behaviorally based curriculum on a large-scale (Engelmann, Becker, Carnine, G identical feature control, irrelevant feature control, and incomplete stimulus control, and discusses implications for the design of instructional systems. Austin (2000) noted a \"relative scarcity of empirical validation for behavioral education methods at the college level\" (p. …","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"1-2"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Behaviorally-designed educational programs are often based on a research tradition that is not widely understood by potential users of the programs. Though the data may be sound and the prediction of outcomes for individual learners quite good, those advocating adoption of behaviorally-designed educational programs may need to do more in order to convince school districts to adopt large-scale implementations of their programs. This article provides an example of a successful approach that suggests quickly gathering local evidence using more familiar evidence-based and experiential methods may increase the likelihood of program adoption. The actual report to the large urban district is included.
{"title":"Building the Case for Large Scale Behavioral Education Adoptions","authors":"Zachary R. Layng, T. Layng","doi":"10.1037/H0100718","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100718","url":null,"abstract":"Behaviorally-designed educational programs are often based on a research tradition that is not widely understood by potential users of the programs. Though the data may be sound and the prediction of outcomes for individual learners quite good, those advocating adoption of behaviorally-designed educational programs may need to do more in order to convince school districts to adopt large-scale implementations of their programs. This article provides an example of a successful approach that suggests quickly gathering local evidence using more familiar evidence-based and experiential methods may increase the likelihood of program adoption. The actual report to the large urban district is included.","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"13 1","pages":"41-47"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2012-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58474340","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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