Behavioral economics, as the name implies, is a hybrid area of research. One form of this hybridization is the use of principles, procedures, and measures associated with behavior-analytic research (e.g., direct observations of steady-state operant behavior). However, Googling "behavioral economics" reveals a second hybrid that will be less familiar to readers of this journal, but more familiar to economists. This second form of behavioral economic research represents an infusion of decision-making research findings into mainstream economics. Most of these findings have been contributed by cognitive psychologists such as Kahneman and Tversky (1979), working in the area of prospect theory. Discoveries made by these researchers have had a profound influence on economists because they demonstrate reliable deviations from expected utility (maximization) theory--an assumption upon which much economic theorizing was based. This influence was recognized by the awarding of the 2002 Nobel Prize in economics to Daniel Kahneman, the father of prospect theory. The methods of research used by prospect theorists rely primarily on asking participants to make a single choice between hypothetical prospective outcomes (e.g., to choose between a sure thing and a risky outcome). As in most psychological research, choices are averaged across individuals and subjected to statistical analyses. No doubt, some readers of this journal will be critical of some components of these research methods (e.g., the practice of measuring self-reports of what one might do instead of measuring choices between real outcomes). Such critiques are worth empirical investigation (e.g., Johnson & Bickel, 2002), but it should be recognized that some very important choices made by humans are prospect choices; that is, one-time choices where the individual weighs prospective outcomes before they are experienced. For example, when deciding to accept or reject the offer of a promotion at work, the individual will make a single choice (rather than a sequence of choices continuing until choice stabilizes). Although it would be interesting to determine if prospect choices represent steady-state choices made after behavior has reached an equilibrium with the prevailing contingencies, studying choice in this way will take it out of the context of choosing between prospective outcomes, and may tell us little about some very important decisions that humans are called upon to make. Consider, for example, the prospect choice that members of the U.S. congress were being asked to make at the time this paper was written--whether or not to accept the Treasury Secretary's advice to back failing Wall Street financial institutions with $700 billion of taxpayer money. Unprecedented choices are choices between prospective outcomes, and these choices are worthy of a thorough behavioral analysis. An obvious place to begin such an analysis would be to study how prior experiences (i.e., history) affect prospect choic
{"title":"Behavioral Economics: Principles, Procedures, and Utility for Applied Behavior Analysis","authors":"Monica T. Francisco, G. Madden, J. C. Borrero","doi":"10.1037/H0100671","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100671","url":null,"abstract":"Behavioral economics, as the name implies, is a hybrid area of research. One form of this hybridization is the use of principles, procedures, and measures associated with behavior-analytic research (e.g., direct observations of steady-state operant behavior). However, Googling \"behavioral economics\" reveals a second hybrid that will be less familiar to readers of this journal, but more familiar to economists. This second form of behavioral economic research represents an infusion of decision-making research findings into mainstream economics. Most of these findings have been contributed by cognitive psychologists such as Kahneman and Tversky (1979), working in the area of prospect theory. Discoveries made by these researchers have had a profound influence on economists because they demonstrate reliable deviations from expected utility (maximization) theory--an assumption upon which much economic theorizing was based. This influence was recognized by the awarding of the 2002 Nobel Prize in economics to Daniel Kahneman, the father of prospect theory. The methods of research used by prospect theorists rely primarily on asking participants to make a single choice between hypothetical prospective outcomes (e.g., to choose between a sure thing and a risky outcome). As in most psychological research, choices are averaged across individuals and subjected to statistical analyses. No doubt, some readers of this journal will be critical of some components of these research methods (e.g., the practice of measuring self-reports of what one might do instead of measuring choices between real outcomes). Such critiques are worth empirical investigation (e.g., Johnson & Bickel, 2002), but it should be recognized that some very important choices made by humans are prospect choices; that is, one-time choices where the individual weighs prospective outcomes before they are experienced. For example, when deciding to accept or reject the offer of a promotion at work, the individual will make a single choice (rather than a sequence of choices continuing until choice stabilizes). Although it would be interesting to determine if prospect choices represent steady-state choices made after behavior has reached an equilibrium with the prevailing contingencies, studying choice in this way will take it out of the context of choosing between prospective outcomes, and may tell us little about some very important decisions that humans are called upon to make. Consider, for example, the prospect choice that members of the U.S. congress were being asked to make at the time this paper was written--whether or not to accept the Treasury Secretary's advice to back failing Wall Street financial institutions with $700 billion of taxpayer money. Unprecedented choices are choices between prospective outcomes, and these choices are worthy of a thorough behavioral analysis. An obvious place to begin such an analysis would be to study how prior experiences (i.e., history) affect prospect choic","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"277-293"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472797","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Friends and admirers of Ted Carr from Stony Brook University were shocked and saddened by the news that he and his wife (Ilene Wasserman) were killed by a drunk driver not far from their home on Long Island on Saturday June 20th 2009. Most knew Ted through his many influential publications and some were fortunate to hear him speak--typically one of the most thought-provoking as well as entertaining speakers at any conference. Summing up such a productive and influential career is difficult, but Ted would certainly advocate that context is essential to understand anyone's behavior, so it is fitting to begin with some of his background. Ted grew up in Toronto, Canada in a typical middle class home. Several early stories about his childhood are revealing and seem to hold keys to understanding his later development. For example, he once shared a humorous but telling prank he pulled on his mother. One day she was outside a second story window of their home on a part of the roof, presumably washing the windows from the outside. A young Ted--perhaps 3 or 4 years old--was just inside watching her when something prompted him to close the window. As he told this story you could picture his devilish grin and the joy he must have experienced with his accomplishment. Unfortunately, his mother couldn't open the window and was now trapped on the roof. This so upset him that he cowered in the corner of the room, feeling powerless to help her. Finally, his mother caught the attention of some neighbors and they were able to get her back inside. When he told me this story we both laughed and I remarked, "She must have really punished you for that one!" He smiled ruefully and said, "In her eyes I could never do anything wrong." This type of support and unconditional regard undoubtedly contributed to his later courage and confidence, helping him break new ground in his research and writing. He also shared how his family had few books at home, but that a neighbor opened his home library to him and he was introduced to many of the great literary works. This was just the beginning of his insatiable thirst for new ideas. Ted started his graduate career doing operant conditioning research on pigeons with George Reynolds (a student of B.F. Skinner) at the University of California, San Diego and he received his Ph.D. in 1973. However, it was his post doctoral work with Ivar Lovaas at UCLA that would lay the foundation for his later work in autism. During his time at UCLA he met and worked with other pioneers in the field, including Bob Keogel, Laura Schreibman and Creighton (Buddy) Newsom (who passed away last year) and conducted research at Camarrilo State Hospital. He later contributed to the "lab manual" which most will recognize as the "Me Book" that served as the protocol for early intensive behavioral intervention efforts for years to come (Lovaas, 1981). He spent the rest of his career at Stony Brook University, becoming an assistant professor
{"title":"Edward (Ted) Carr-A Life Worth Living","authors":"V. Durand","doi":"10.1037/H0100674","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100674","url":null,"abstract":"[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Friends and admirers of Ted Carr from Stony Brook University were shocked and saddened by the news that he and his wife (Ilene Wasserman) were killed by a drunk driver not far from their home on Long Island on Saturday June 20th 2009. Most knew Ted through his many influential publications and some were fortunate to hear him speak--typically one of the most thought-provoking as well as entertaining speakers at any conference. Summing up such a productive and influential career is difficult, but Ted would certainly advocate that context is essential to understand anyone's behavior, so it is fitting to begin with some of his background. Ted grew up in Toronto, Canada in a typical middle class home. Several early stories about his childhood are revealing and seem to hold keys to understanding his later development. For example, he once shared a humorous but telling prank he pulled on his mother. One day she was outside a second story window of their home on a part of the roof, presumably washing the windows from the outside. A young Ted--perhaps 3 or 4 years old--was just inside watching her when something prompted him to close the window. As he told this story you could picture his devilish grin and the joy he must have experienced with his accomplishment. Unfortunately, his mother couldn't open the window and was now trapped on the roof. This so upset him that he cowered in the corner of the room, feeling powerless to help her. Finally, his mother caught the attention of some neighbors and they were able to get her back inside. When he told me this story we both laughed and I remarked, \"She must have really punished you for that one!\" He smiled ruefully and said, \"In her eyes I could never do anything wrong.\" This type of support and unconditional regard undoubtedly contributed to his later courage and confidence, helping him break new ground in his research and writing. He also shared how his family had few books at home, but that a neighbor opened his home library to him and he was introduced to many of the great literary works. This was just the beginning of his insatiable thirst for new ideas. Ted started his graduate career doing operant conditioning research on pigeons with George Reynolds (a student of B.F. Skinner) at the University of California, San Diego and he received his Ph.D. in 1973. However, it was his post doctoral work with Ivar Lovaas at UCLA that would lay the foundation for his later work in autism. During his time at UCLA he met and worked with other pioneers in the field, including Bob Keogel, Laura Schreibman and Creighton (Buddy) Newsom (who passed away last year) and conducted research at Camarrilo State Hospital. He later contributed to the \"lab manual\" which most will recognize as the \"Me Book\" that served as the protocol for early intensive behavioral intervention efforts for years to come (Lovaas, 1981). He spent the rest of his career at Stony Brook University, becoming an assistant professor ","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"344-348"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472587","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
"Since Darwin, the central project of evolutionary biology has been to explain the origin of biodiversity--to determine how novel species and their characteristics have evolved" (Thorton, 2006, p. 157). Operant conditioning can be described in similar terms: Since Skinner, the central project has been to explain how operant behaviors originate and change. To explain biodiversity, on the one hand, and behavioral diversity, on the other, we must consider the variations from which each emerges. This paper is about the causes, consequences, and possible applications of variability, but I begin by noting some parallels in the area of genetics. Continual variation in genetic material provides the bases of all evolved forms of life. Lewis Thomas said this in a more evocative way: "The capacity to blunder slightly is the real marvel of DNA. Without this special attribute, we would still be anaerobic bacteria and there would be no music" (quoted in Pennisi, 1998, p. 1131). Genetic variability, due to mutations in DNA, have many causes including errors during normal replication, insults from chemicals or radiation, jumps or transpositions of genetic materials, and other "spontaneous" changes. In sexually reproducing organisms, another source of continual variation occurs during gamete formation. When genetic material in sperm and egg cells divide, there is random and independent assortment within individual chromosomes and random crossings between portions of maternal and paternal chromosomes. Mutations, jumps, assortments, and crossings are said to occur "randomly," that is, without regard to the current "needs" of an organism or changes that result. However, "random" does not mean without influence or boundaries. The processes that permit and maintain genetic variability have themselves evolved under selection pressures. "Chance favors the prepared genome ... Evolutionary strategies evolve, under the pressure of natural selection; this makes the process of evolution more efficient ... (T)he genome ... (has an) ability to create, focus, tune and regulate genetic variation and thus to play a role in its own evolution" (Caporale, 1999, pp. 1 & 15). A combination of variation and selection at work within the genome itself may best be described as bounded stochasticity , with mutations, mixings and variations occurring stochastically and unpredictably, but within a confined milieu that has been selected and conserved over evolutionary time. As will be seen, similar bounded stochasticity is an attribute of operant behavior as well. A word about terminology. "Stochastic" and "random" will be used synonymously in the present paper, both to indicate a sequence of instances from a defined set, with prediction of the next instance not possible at a level greater than the relative frequencies of members of the set. Imagine, for example, a well-mixed tub filled with 200 red balls, 200 blue balls, and 200 green balls. Balls are selected one at a time with replacement
“自达尔文以来，进化生物学的核心项目一直是解释生物多样性的起源——确定新物种及其特征是如何进化的”(桑顿，2006年，第157页)。操作性条件反射可以用类似的术语来描述:自斯金纳以来，核心项目一直是解释操作性行为是如何产生和改变的。一方面，为了解释生物多样性，另一方面，为了解释行为多样性，我们必须考虑它们产生的差异。这篇论文是关于变异的原因、后果和可能的应用，但我首先注意到遗传学领域的一些相似之处。遗传物质的不断变化为所有进化的生命形式提供了基础。刘易斯·托马斯(Lewis Thomas)用一种更令人回味的方式说过:“轻微犯错的能力是DNA的真正奇迹。如果没有这种特殊的属性，我们仍然是厌氧菌，也不会有音乐”(引用自Pennisi, 1998, p. 1131)。由DNA突变引起的遗传变异有许多原因，包括正常复制过程中的错误、化学物质或辐射的损害、遗传物质的跳跃或转位以及其他“自发”变化。在有性繁殖的生物体中，另一个持续变异的来源发生在配子形成过程中。当精子和卵细胞中的遗传物质分裂时，在单个染色体内存在随机和独立的分类，并且在母染色体和父染色体的部分之间存在随机交叉。突变、跳跃、组合和交叉被认为是“随机”发生的，也就是说，不考虑生物体当前的“需要”或由此产生的变化。然而，“随机”并不意味着没有影响或边界。允许和维持遗传变异的过程本身是在选择压力下进化的。“机会倾向于准备好的基因组……进化策略在自然选择的压力下进化;这使得进化过程更有效率……(T)基因组……(有)创造、集中、调整和调节基因变异的能力，从而在其自身的进化中发挥作用”(Caporale, 1999，第1和15页)。变异和选择的结合在基因组内部起作用，最好被描述为有限的随机性，突变、混合和变异随机地、不可预测地发生，但在一个有限的环境中，在进化的过程中被选择和保存。将会看到，类似的有界随机性也是操作行为的一个属性。关于术语的一句话。“随机”和“随机”将在本文中同义使用，两者都表示来自已定义集合的实例序列，在大于集合成员的相对频率的水平上不可能预测下一个实例。想象一下，例如，一个完全混合的浴缸，里面装满了200个红球、200个蓝球和200个绿球。每次选择一个球，更换和连续混合。对下一个颜色的预测平均不优于每种颜色相对频率的1/3(200/600)。如果有100个红球、200个蓝球和300个绿球，那么预测绿色的正确率平均不超过1/2(300/600)，以此类推。类似地，我们可以想象一对有偏差的骰子:尽管两个骰子都比预期的多出6(假设每个骰子都有1/3的概率)，但每个骰子的结果仍然是随机的，因为刚刚掷出的6既不会增加也不会降低未来再掷出6的机会。尽管选择可能是随机发生的，但突发事件仅限于集合中的成员，并受其相对比例或“优势”的影响。正如将显示的，有许多类型的压力在定义和影响产生操作实例的集合。当然，所有的行为都是不同的，就像所有的物理事物一样。但可变性在操作性行为中起着特别重要的作用。…
{"title":"Operant Variability and the Power of Reinforcement.","authors":"A. Neuringer","doi":"10.1037/H0100673","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100673","url":null,"abstract":"\"Since Darwin, the central project of evolutionary biology has been to explain the origin of biodiversity--to determine how novel species and their characteristics have evolved\" (Thorton, 2006, p. 157). Operant conditioning can be described in similar terms: Since Skinner, the central project has been to explain how operant behaviors originate and change. To explain biodiversity, on the one hand, and behavioral diversity, on the other, we must consider the variations from which each emerges. This paper is about the causes, consequences, and possible applications of variability, but I begin by noting some parallels in the area of genetics. Continual variation in genetic material provides the bases of all evolved forms of life. Lewis Thomas said this in a more evocative way: \"The capacity to blunder slightly is the real marvel of DNA. Without this special attribute, we would still be anaerobic bacteria and there would be no music\" (quoted in Pennisi, 1998, p. 1131). Genetic variability, due to mutations in DNA, have many causes including errors during normal replication, insults from chemicals or radiation, jumps or transpositions of genetic materials, and other \"spontaneous\" changes. In sexually reproducing organisms, another source of continual variation occurs during gamete formation. When genetic material in sperm and egg cells divide, there is random and independent assortment within individual chromosomes and random crossings between portions of maternal and paternal chromosomes. Mutations, jumps, assortments, and crossings are said to occur \"randomly,\" that is, without regard to the current \"needs\" of an organism or changes that result. However, \"random\" does not mean without influence or boundaries. The processes that permit and maintain genetic variability have themselves evolved under selection pressures. \"Chance favors the prepared genome ... Evolutionary strategies evolve, under the pressure of natural selection; this makes the process of evolution more efficient ... (T)he genome ... (has an) ability to create, focus, tune and regulate genetic variation and thus to play a role in its own evolution\" (Caporale, 1999, pp. 1 & 15). A combination of variation and selection at work within the genome itself may best be described as bounded stochasticity , with mutations, mixings and variations occurring stochastically and unpredictably, but within a confined milieu that has been selected and conserved over evolutionary time. As will be seen, similar bounded stochasticity is an attribute of operant behavior as well. A word about terminology. \"Stochastic\" and \"random\" will be used synonymously in the present paper, both to indicate a sequence of instances from a defined set, with prediction of the next instance not possible at a level greater than the relative frequencies of members of the set. Imagine, for example, a well-mixed tub filled with 200 red balls, 200 blue balls, and 200 green balls. Balls are selected one at a time with replacement ","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"319-343"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472932","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Amanda C. Adcock, Kristin L. Juskiewicz, D. Woods, Amy R. Murrell
Stimulus events often organize behavior in the absence of a direct learning history with that particular event. Many studies have examined indirect learning such as derived relational responding in matching-to-sample procedures and determined that the process of relating develops at approximately the same time as language (Devany, Hayes, & Nelson, 1986; Lipkins, Hayes, & Hayes, 1993). Because of this relationship with language in combination with the success of stimulus equivalence in the teaching of reading and language, it has been posited as one of the basic elements of human language and cognition (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001). Thus, researchers have begun to examine the effects of including words and stimuli with pre-established functions, based on assumed contact with the social verbal community, into equivalence procedures. It was quickly determined that these stimuli impact the formation of equivalence classes. This seems to happen in three ways: (a) inhibition of formation, (b) rigid inflexibility of classes, and (c) facilitated acquisition. Inhibition of Class Formation. Stimuli that evoke certain emotional responses are associated with inhibition of class formation, when training that should produce classes of all meaningful stimuli is given. For example, Plaud (1995) found that the formation of snake classes was inhibited in individuals with a snake phobia, but the formation of flower classes was not. More specifically, conditional discriminations were trained that produced equivalence classes among all snake words (Cobra-Rattlers-Python) or all flower words (Yucca-Daffodil-Crocus). Fear relevant stimuli produced inhibition of equivalence responding in anxious individuals; however, non-anxious individuals were not inhibited in equivalence responding for either snake or flower class. Inhibition was also noted when equivalence training procedures were intended to create classes between sexually explicit stimuli (Plaud, Gaither, Franklin, Weller, & Barth, 1998). Both these studies examined the ability of individuals to form equivalence classes in which all stimuli had similar functions. Inhibition was noted when all the stimuli in the class had stimulus functions that evoked emotional responses (sexually explicit stimuli and snakes for snake phobics). Rigid Inflexibility of Classes. Experimental procedures designed to produce equivalence classes containing one member from two different pre-experimental equivalence classes show an inability of these classes to merge, demonstrating the inflexibility of classes of stimuli that evoke pre-experimental emotional responses. This is the counterpart of the insensitivity seen in rule-governed behavior (Matthews, Shimoff, Catania, & Sagvolden, 1977). For example, Watt, Keenan, Barnes, and Cairns (1991) trained equivalence relations between Northern Irish Catholic names, nonsense syllables, and Northern Irish Protestant symbols to individuals with either a Protestant or Catholic upbringing f
{"title":"An Examination of Facilitated Acquisition and Transformation of Function in Derived Relational Responding","authors":"Amanda C. Adcock, Kristin L. Juskiewicz, D. Woods, Amy R. Murrell","doi":"10.1037/H0100664","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100664","url":null,"abstract":"Stimulus events often organize behavior in the absence of a direct learning history with that particular event. Many studies have examined indirect learning such as derived relational responding in matching-to-sample procedures and determined that the process of relating develops at approximately the same time as language (Devany, Hayes, & Nelson, 1986; Lipkins, Hayes, & Hayes, 1993). Because of this relationship with language in combination with the success of stimulus equivalence in the teaching of reading and language, it has been posited as one of the basic elements of human language and cognition (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001). Thus, researchers have begun to examine the effects of including words and stimuli with pre-established functions, based on assumed contact with the social verbal community, into equivalence procedures. It was quickly determined that these stimuli impact the formation of equivalence classes. This seems to happen in three ways: (a) inhibition of formation, (b) rigid inflexibility of classes, and (c) facilitated acquisition. Inhibition of Class Formation. Stimuli that evoke certain emotional responses are associated with inhibition of class formation, when training that should produce classes of all meaningful stimuli is given. For example, Plaud (1995) found that the formation of snake classes was inhibited in individuals with a snake phobia, but the formation of flower classes was not. More specifically, conditional discriminations were trained that produced equivalence classes among all snake words (Cobra-Rattlers-Python) or all flower words (Yucca-Daffodil-Crocus). Fear relevant stimuli produced inhibition of equivalence responding in anxious individuals; however, non-anxious individuals were not inhibited in equivalence responding for either snake or flower class. Inhibition was also noted when equivalence training procedures were intended to create classes between sexually explicit stimuli (Plaud, Gaither, Franklin, Weller, & Barth, 1998). Both these studies examined the ability of individuals to form equivalence classes in which all stimuli had similar functions. Inhibition was noted when all the stimuli in the class had stimulus functions that evoked emotional responses (sexually explicit stimuli and snakes for snake phobics). Rigid Inflexibility of Classes. Experimental procedures designed to produce equivalence classes containing one member from two different pre-experimental equivalence classes show an inability of these classes to merge, demonstrating the inflexibility of classes of stimuli that evoke pre-experimental emotional responses. This is the counterpart of the insensitivity seen in rule-governed behavior (Matthews, Shimoff, Catania, & Sagvolden, 1977). For example, Watt, Keenan, Barnes, and Cairns (1991) trained equivalence relations between Northern Irish Catholic names, nonsense syllables, and Northern Irish Protestant symbols to individuals with either a Protestant or Catholic upbringing f","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"54-70"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472178","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
More than two decades ago, Kohlenberg and Tsai (1987) published the first book chapter on Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP), an approach to psychotherapy that is based on the functional analysis of the therapist-client relationship in the individual talk therapy setting. Over time, FAP has consolidated its place among third wave behavior therapies. Third-wave behavior therapy is a strand of treatments that builds upon many of the acquisitions of first-wave (exposure-based) classical behavior therapy and second- wave (based on modifying thoughts and beliefs) cognitive behavior therapy, but differs from them in its distrust of verbal control and its focus on contextual meaning. These differentials give the third-wave behavior therapies an experiential flavor which is strongly evident in FAP. Relying on a client case conceptualization, the FAP therapist observes clinically relevant behavior when it occurs in-session. When it does not occur, he or she evokes it. The curative process depends on the therapist's allowing natural, direct consequences to affect these clinically relevant behaviors in-session. In addition, the therapist monitors and when necessary, promotes generalization. These tasks are interwoven to produce FAP's approach to the healing potential of a relationship. While FAP was developed mainly as an approach to individual psychotherapy, there have been translations into group therapy (e.g. Gaynor & Lawrence, 2002; Hoekstra & Tsai, in press). The present paper presents one such translation. It suggests that, when properly understood, FAP necessarily leads to a type of group therapy that is pragmatically quite different from traditional behavioral group therapy. How could we describe this difference? Since its early days, behavioral group therapy has been distinguished by its teaching technology, including training activities and streamlined learning modules (e.g. Rose, 1977). Group therapies in the cognitive mainstream of behavior therapy (e.g. Free, 1999; Bieling, McCabe & Antony, 2006) tend to maintain this characteristic, through activities such as lectures and structured exercises. Even when, for example, exposure for social phobia is done in-session, the programmed teaching focus is maintained (Becker & Heimberg, 2002). When we apply FAP to the group setting, however, it comes much closer to Group Psychotherapy, which has often focused on unexpected experiences and outcomes (Yalom, 1975; Rutan & Stone, 1984). However, group FAP is not a compromise between these two traditions. The combination of a flexible focus on spontaneously evolving interactions with a functional contextual approach to the healing nature of relationships adds a new dimension to group therapy. The aim of the present article is to discuss how this dimension works. For that purpose, personal experiences in supervising FAP in group therapy will be described. These groups functioned as free-of-charge services for socially disadvantaged patients. First, some p
{"title":"A Functional Analytic Approach to Group Psychotherapy.","authors":"L. Vandenberghe","doi":"10.1037/H0100665","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100665","url":null,"abstract":"More than two decades ago, Kohlenberg and Tsai (1987) published the first book chapter on Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP), an approach to psychotherapy that is based on the functional analysis of the therapist-client relationship in the individual talk therapy setting. Over time, FAP has consolidated its place among third wave behavior therapies. Third-wave behavior therapy is a strand of treatments that builds upon many of the acquisitions of first-wave (exposure-based) classical behavior therapy and second- wave (based on modifying thoughts and beliefs) cognitive behavior therapy, but differs from them in its distrust of verbal control and its focus on contextual meaning. These differentials give the third-wave behavior therapies an experiential flavor which is strongly evident in FAP. Relying on a client case conceptualization, the FAP therapist observes clinically relevant behavior when it occurs in-session. When it does not occur, he or she evokes it. The curative process depends on the therapist's allowing natural, direct consequences to affect these clinically relevant behaviors in-session. In addition, the therapist monitors and when necessary, promotes generalization. These tasks are interwoven to produce FAP's approach to the healing potential of a relationship. While FAP was developed mainly as an approach to individual psychotherapy, there have been translations into group therapy (e.g. Gaynor & Lawrence, 2002; Hoekstra & Tsai, in press). The present paper presents one such translation. It suggests that, when properly understood, FAP necessarily leads to a type of group therapy that is pragmatically quite different from traditional behavioral group therapy. How could we describe this difference? Since its early days, behavioral group therapy has been distinguished by its teaching technology, including training activities and streamlined learning modules (e.g. Rose, 1977). Group therapies in the cognitive mainstream of behavior therapy (e.g. Free, 1999; Bieling, McCabe & Antony, 2006) tend to maintain this characteristic, through activities such as lectures and structured exercises. Even when, for example, exposure for social phobia is done in-session, the programmed teaching focus is maintained (Becker & Heimberg, 2002). When we apply FAP to the group setting, however, it comes much closer to Group Psychotherapy, which has often focused on unexpected experiences and outcomes (Yalom, 1975; Rutan & Stone, 1984). However, group FAP is not a compromise between these two traditions. The combination of a flexible focus on spontaneously evolving interactions with a functional contextual approach to the healing nature of relationships adds a new dimension to group therapy. The aim of the present article is to discuss how this dimension works. For that purpose, personal experiences in supervising FAP in group therapy will be described. These groups functioned as free-of-charge services for socially disadvantaged patients. First, some p","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"71-82"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472942","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Graphic displays of data for ongoing visual inspections serve as the primary vehicle for interpreting and analyzing treatment effects in single-subject (SS) research (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Precision in data analyses is possible only when data are presented in a clear and accurate graphic format, in order for SS researchers to appropriately evaluate the functional relationships between the dependent and independent variables. Due to recent technological advancements (e.g., Microsoft[R] Office software upgrades), researchers are provided with tools to create a graph that is professional, presentable, and that is in an electronic format for dissemination purpose (e.g., publications). However, creating precise electronic SS graphs continues to be difficult for many educators and researchers because of the complexity of graphing knowledge and skills involved in the task (Lo & Konrad, 2007). Microsoft[R] (hereafter MS) Office Excel is one of the most common and standard software available to users for constructing SS graphs. To assist users in creating professionally presented, computer-generated SS graphs, several guidelines or step-by-step instructions for using MS Excel as the graphing software are available. For example, Carr and Burkholder (1998) offered step-by-step procedures for graphing reversal, multiple baseline, and multielement design graphs using Excel 97 for Windows 95/NT or MacOS operating systems. Similarly, Moran and Hirschbine (2002) provided a technical tutorial of detailed steps for creating reversal design graphs using Excel 97 and Excel 2000. Hillman and Miller (2004) expanded on this paper by further illustrating steps for creating multiple baseline graphs using Excel 97 and 2000. To supplement the contents of their most recent edition textbook, Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers (2006, 7th ed.), Cihak, Alberto, Troutman, and Flores (2006) provided step-by-step instructions for using Excel 2003 or earlier versions to construct six types of SS design graphs including AB design, reversal, changing criterion, multiple baseline/probe, alternating treatments, and multi-treatments designs. Finally, Lo and Konrad (2007) expanded on previous publications by refining and detailing two task analyses specific for creating various SS single data path and double data paths graphs using Excel 2003 or earlier versions. In addition to the aforementioned guidelines in using MS Excel program for graphing SS research data, tutorials or instructions for creating SS graphs are also available to users with either MS Word for Windows 2003 and Mac 2004 (Grehan & Moran, 2005) or MS PowerPoint 2003 and MS PowerPoint for Mac (Barton, Reichow, & Woolery, 2007). Despite the availability and usefulness of various approaches or instructions for creating SS graphs using MS software programs, previous published guidelines become impractical for users who adopt the newest version of MS Office 2007 program. This new version presents drastic changes
正在进行的目视检查数据的图形显示是单受试者(SS)研究中解释和分析治疗效果的主要工具(Cooper, Heron， & Heward, 2007)。只有当数据以清晰准确的图形格式呈现时，数据分析的准确性才有可能实现，以便SS研究人员能够适当地评估因变量和自变量之间的函数关系。由于最近的技术进步(例如，Microsoft[R] Office软件升级)，研究人员提供了工具来创建专业，美观的图表，并且以电子格式用于传播目的(例如，出版物)。然而，对于许多教育工作者和研究人员来说，创建精确的电子SS图表仍然很困难，因为这项任务涉及到绘图知识和技能的复杂性(Lo & Konrad, 2007)。Microsoft[R](以下简称MS) Office Excel是用户可用于构建SS图的最常见和标准的软件之一。为了帮助用户创建专业呈现的、计算机生成的SS图表，我们提供了一些使用MS Excel作为绘图软件的指南或分步说明。例如，Carr和Burkholder(1998)提供了使用适用于Windows 95/NT或MacOS操作系统的Excel 97绘制反转、多基线和多元素设计图形的逐步步骤。同样，Moran和Hirschbine(2002)提供了使用Excel 97和Excel 2000创建反转设计图的详细步骤的技术教程。Hillman和Miller(2004)通过进一步说明使用Excel 97和2000创建多个基线图的步骤，对本文进行了扩展。Cihak, Alberto, Troutman和Flores(2006)为补充其最新版教科书《教师应用行为分析》(2006，第7版)的内容，提供了使用Excel 2003或更早版本构建六种类型的SS设计图的逐步说明，包括AB设计，反转，改变标准，多重基线/探查，交替处理和多处理设计。最后，Lo和Konrad(2007)对之前的出版物进行了扩展，对使用Excel 2003或更早版本创建各种SS单数据路径和双数据路径图的两个任务分析进行了细化和详细说明。除了前面提到的使用MS Excel程序绘制SS研究数据的指导方针外，用户还可以使用MS Word for Windows 2003和Mac 2004 (Grehan & Moran, 2005)或MS PowerPoint 2003和MS PowerPoint for Mac (Barton, Reichow， & Woolery, 2007)创建SS图表的教程或说明。尽管使用MS软件程序创建SS图表的各种方法或说明都是可用的和有用的，但以前发布的指导方针对于采用最新版本的MS Office 2007程序的用户来说是不切实际的。与之前的版本相比，这个新版本在命令和工具栏方面出现了巨大的变化，使得用户在使用MS Office 2007时很难跟上。最近，Dixon等人(出版中)更新了Carr和Burkholder(1998)的图表任务分析，并为在Excel 2007中创建SS图表提供了新的任务分析。Dixon等人采用受试者间设计，使用Carr和Burkholder或新任务分析比较了22名研究生的Excel 2007 SS绘图技能。作者发现，接受新任务分析的参与者比使用卡尔和伯克霍尔德程序的参与者更快、更准确地创建了SS图表。Dixon等人的三组任务分析(即逆转设计、多元素设计和多基线设计)非常及时和有用;然而，一些Excel 2007用户可能会从简化的任务分析中受益，这些任务分析涉及Dixon等人的任务分析中没有涉及的以下方面:(a)设置数据点落在x轴的刻度上，(b)在保持适当的尺度的同时将0从x轴上移开，(c)在x轴和y轴上提供适当和一致的尺度，(d)提供在一个图上创建多个数据路径的说明，(e)在整个任务分析过程中提供伴随关键步骤的各种图形，以及(f)提供为附加信息插入新列的详细说明(e. ...)
{"title":"Improving Graduate Students' Graphing Skills of Multiple Baseline Designs with Microsoft Excel 2007","authors":"Ya-yu Lo, A. Starling","doi":"10.1037/H0100666","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100666","url":null,"abstract":"Graphic displays of data for ongoing visual inspections serve as the primary vehicle for interpreting and analyzing treatment effects in single-subject (SS) research (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Precision in data analyses is possible only when data are presented in a clear and accurate graphic format, in order for SS researchers to appropriately evaluate the functional relationships between the dependent and independent variables. Due to recent technological advancements (e.g., Microsoft[R] Office software upgrades), researchers are provided with tools to create a graph that is professional, presentable, and that is in an electronic format for dissemination purpose (e.g., publications). However, creating precise electronic SS graphs continues to be difficult for many educators and researchers because of the complexity of graphing knowledge and skills involved in the task (Lo & Konrad, 2007). Microsoft[R] (hereafter MS) Office Excel is one of the most common and standard software available to users for constructing SS graphs. To assist users in creating professionally presented, computer-generated SS graphs, several guidelines or step-by-step instructions for using MS Excel as the graphing software are available. For example, Carr and Burkholder (1998) offered step-by-step procedures for graphing reversal, multiple baseline, and multielement design graphs using Excel 97 for Windows 95/NT or MacOS operating systems. Similarly, Moran and Hirschbine (2002) provided a technical tutorial of detailed steps for creating reversal design graphs using Excel 97 and Excel 2000. Hillman and Miller (2004) expanded on this paper by further illustrating steps for creating multiple baseline graphs using Excel 97 and 2000. To supplement the contents of their most recent edition textbook, Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers (2006, 7th ed.), Cihak, Alberto, Troutman, and Flores (2006) provided step-by-step instructions for using Excel 2003 or earlier versions to construct six types of SS design graphs including AB design, reversal, changing criterion, multiple baseline/probe, alternating treatments, and multi-treatments designs. Finally, Lo and Konrad (2007) expanded on previous publications by refining and detailing two task analyses specific for creating various SS single data path and double data paths graphs using Excel 2003 or earlier versions. In addition to the aforementioned guidelines in using MS Excel program for graphing SS research data, tutorials or instructions for creating SS graphs are also available to users with either MS Word for Windows 2003 and Mac 2004 (Grehan & Moran, 2005) or MS PowerPoint 2003 and MS PowerPoint for Mac (Barton, Reichow, & Woolery, 2007). Despite the availability and usefulness of various approaches or instructions for creating SS graphs using MS software programs, previous published guidelines become impractical for users who adopt the newest version of MS Office 2007 program. This new version presents drastic changes ","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"83-121"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472961","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
R. Nelson-Gray, Christopher M. Lootens, John T. Mitchell, Christopher D. Robertson, N. Hundt, N. Kimbrel
According to traditional diagnostic viewpoints represented in the DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, text revision; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), a personality disorder is: "an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment" (p. 685). We review issues relevant to a behavioral perspective and the DSM-IV-TR approach to personality disorders below, followed by assessment and treatment issues for personality disorders (both at the nomothetic and idiographic levels), and examples of borderline and avoidant personality disorders. A central thesis of this paper is that a behavioral approach to assessment and treatment can compliment and expand upon a diagnostic approach, for example, by targeting covarying response classes characteristic of the different personality disorders. The concept of "personality" has historically been eschewed by behaviorists, who focus on external (i.e., environmental), rather than internal, causes of behavior. The purpose of this paper is to present our view that basic behavioral principles can be successfully applied to personality disorders, which have been conceptualized by many as "characterological" in nature and that a behavioral view can fully integrate the DSM concept of personality disorders. Hayes et al. (2006) supported this emphasis on behavior theory by noting that a focus on basic behavioral treatment principles (not just the techniques themselves) makes it easier to confront a wide array of clinical problems. Although one such treatment package for personality disorders does exist, it is designed only for borderline personality disorder. Further, some personality-disordered clients show resistance to the structure of a manualized treatment, leaving much room for uncertainty in the treatment of this population. It is our position that a focus on basic behavioral assessment and treatment principles can aid greatly in clinical decision-making for clients with personality disorders. As this population presents unique and difficult clinical challenges, this approach is likely to be successful in the absence of readily available treatment packages. The Relationship between Behavioral Assessment and the DSM system Prior to presenting a behavioral view on the assessment of personality disorders, we describe the relationship between behavioral assessment and the DSM system. It is our contention that recent versions of the DSM can be useful to behavioral assessors. This viewpoint has been presented previously, in relation to psychopathology in general (Nelson & Barlow, 1981; Nelson-Gray & Paulson, 2004). Behavioral assessment and psychiatric diagnosis developed on two parallel tracks. Behavioral assessment began informally, as a means of quantifying outcome me
{"title":"Assessment and Treatment of Personality Disorders: A Behavioral Perspective.","authors":"R. Nelson-Gray, Christopher M. Lootens, John T. Mitchell, Christopher D. Robertson, N. Hundt, N. Kimbrel","doi":"10.1037/H0100662","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100662","url":null,"abstract":"According to traditional diagnostic viewpoints represented in the DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, text revision; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), a personality disorder is: \"an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment\" (p. 685). We review issues relevant to a behavioral perspective and the DSM-IV-TR approach to personality disorders below, followed by assessment and treatment issues for personality disorders (both at the nomothetic and idiographic levels), and examples of borderline and avoidant personality disorders. A central thesis of this paper is that a behavioral approach to assessment and treatment can compliment and expand upon a diagnostic approach, for example, by targeting covarying response classes characteristic of the different personality disorders. The concept of \"personality\" has historically been eschewed by behaviorists, who focus on external (i.e., environmental), rather than internal, causes of behavior. The purpose of this paper is to present our view that basic behavioral principles can be successfully applied to personality disorders, which have been conceptualized by many as \"characterological\" in nature and that a behavioral view can fully integrate the DSM concept of personality disorders. Hayes et al. (2006) supported this emphasis on behavior theory by noting that a focus on basic behavioral treatment principles (not just the techniques themselves) makes it easier to confront a wide array of clinical problems. Although one such treatment package for personality disorders does exist, it is designed only for borderline personality disorder. Further, some personality-disordered clients show resistance to the structure of a manualized treatment, leaving much room for uncertainty in the treatment of this population. It is our position that a focus on basic behavioral assessment and treatment principles can aid greatly in clinical decision-making for clients with personality disorders. As this population presents unique and difficult clinical challenges, this approach is likely to be successful in the absence of readily available treatment packages. The Relationship between Behavioral Assessment and the DSM system Prior to presenting a behavioral view on the assessment of personality disorders, we describe the relationship between behavioral assessment and the DSM system. It is our contention that recent versions of the DSM can be useful to behavioral assessors. This viewpoint has been presented previously, in relation to psychopathology in general (Nelson & Barlow, 1981; Nelson-Gray & Paulson, 2004). Behavioral assessment and psychiatric diagnosis developed on two parallel tracks. Behavioral assessment began informally, as a means of quantifying outcome me","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"7-46"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Functional analysis has been shown to be an effective assessment tool for identifying the environmental variables maintaining a wide range of problematic behavior in various settings (Derby et al. 1992; Mace & Lalli, 1991; Northup et al., 1991; Sasso et al., 1992; Wacker et al., 1994; Wilder, Chen, Atwell, Pritchard, & Weinstein, 2006; Wilder, Harris, Reagan, & Rasey, 2007). Despite numerous studies in the literature that supply evidence for the utility of functional analyses, this assessment tool has not been readily adopted in general education settings. The rationale for the lack of integration are cited as being due to time constraints, the general complexity of the analysis, as well as the impractical nature of this method for use in many public school districts (Axelrod, 1987; Tincani, Castrogiavanni, & Axelrod, 1999). Similar reasoning could also be given for the lack of adoption by behavior analysts to fully market this method of assessment when consulting in general education settings. As a result, teachers, behavior analysts, and other professionals may instead choose to use less reliable assessment methods in order to obtain similar conclusions for the relationships between behavior and the environment (Northup et al., 1991). Still the evidence is definitively clear that functional analysis is the most effective method for identifying the relationship between the environment and behavior (Derby et al., 1992; Wacker et al., 1994). The link between the identification of the contingencies maintaining problematic behavior and the intervention designed and chosen to produce a targeted behavior change has significant implications. Past studies have shown that the accurate identification of behavioral function is crucial to designing an intervention which focuses on replacing the socially inappropriate behavior with an appropriate alternative that will serve the same function (Carr & Durand, 1985; Derby et al., 1992; Mace & Lalli, 1991; Northup et al., 1991; Sasso et al., 1992; Tincani, et al., 1999; Wilder et al., 2007). Brief functional analyses are less time consuming than traditional or extended functional analyses and offer an effective alternative approach in settings in which time, resources, and staffing limitations cannot be made more accommodating (Derby et al., Tincani et al., 1999; Wacker et al., 1994; Wilder et al., 2006; Wilder et al., 2007). Although functional assessments are traditionally performed in least restrictive environments, brief functional analyses may produce more accurate and clear results as well as take less time to conduct. For this reason, general education settings could more readily use this assessment tool in situations in which the maintaining variables may be confounded by simultaneously occurring consequences in the natural environment (e.g. attention and escape). The importance of accurately assessing the function of problematic behavior to determine a functionally equivalent intervention remains an ind
功能分析已被证明是一种有效的评估工具，用于识别在各种设置中维持各种问题行为的环境变量(Derby等人，1992;Mace & Lalli, 1991;Northup et al.， 1991;Sasso et al.， 1992;Wacker et al.， 1994;Wilder, Chen, Atwell, Pritchard， & Weinstein, 2006;Wilder, Harris, Reagan， & Rasey, 2007)。尽管文献中有许多研究为功能分析的实用性提供了证据，但这种评估工具尚未在普通教育环境中得到采用。缺乏整合的理由被引用为由于时间限制，分析的一般复杂性，以及这种方法在许多公立学区使用的不切实际的性质(Axelrod, 1987;Tincani, Castrogiavanni， & Axelrod, 1999)。在普通教育环境中进行咨询时，行为分析师没有充分采用这种评估方法，也可以给出类似的理由。因此，教师、行为分析师和其他专业人员可能会选择使用不太可靠的评估方法，以获得行为与环境之间关系的类似结论(Northup et al.， 1991)。尽管如此，证据确凿地表明，功能分析是识别环境与行为之间关系的最有效方法(Derby et al.， 1992;Wacker et al.， 1994)。识别维持问题行为的偶然事件与设计和选择干预措施以产生有针对性的行为改变之间的联系具有重要意义。过去的研究表明，行为功能的准确识别对于设计干预措施至关重要，该干预措施的重点是用具有相同功能的适当替代行为取代社会不当行为(Carr & Durand, 1985;Derby et al.， 1992;Mace & Lalli, 1991;Northup et al.， 1991;Sasso et al.， 1992;Tincani等人，1999;Wilder et al.， 2007)。简短的功能分析比传统的或扩展的功能分析更节省时间，并且在时间、资源和人员限制不能更加适应的情况下提供了一种有效的替代方法(Derby等人，Tincani等人，1999;Wacker et al.， 1994;Wilder et al.， 2006;Wilder et al.， 2007)。虽然功能评估传统上是在限制最少的环境中执行的，但是简短的功能分析可以产生更准确和清晰的结果，并且花费更少的时间来执行。出于这个原因，普通教育机构可以更容易地使用这种评估工具，在这种情况下，维持变量可能被自然环境中同时发生的后果混淆(例如，注意力和逃跑)。在任何情况下，准确评估问题行为的功能以确定功能等效的干预措施的重要性仍然是行为分析研究中不争的事实。本研究的目的是首先进行简短的功能分析，以确定维持不服从行为的功能，然后在普通教育环境中以分析结果为中心确定基于功能的干预措施。一项短期评估证明了建议的基于功能的干预措施的有效性。这项简短的研究将研究扩展到普通教育环境，并为在限制最少的环境中使用简短的功能分析提供了进一步的基础。方法参与者本研究的参与者是一名参加正规学前教育项目的学生。迈克尔是一个四岁的男孩，他参加了一个正规的学前教育项目。在本研究时，他没有接受过诊断。值得关注的行为是迈克尔表现出的不服从行为，当被指示时保持静止，扔东西，和/或口头说“不”。…
{"title":"Linking Brief Functional Analysis to Intervention Design in General Education Settings.","authors":"Tifanie Ishuin","doi":"10.1037/H0100663","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100663","url":null,"abstract":"Functional analysis has been shown to be an effective assessment tool for identifying the environmental variables maintaining a wide range of problematic behavior in various settings (Derby et al. 1992; Mace & Lalli, 1991; Northup et al., 1991; Sasso et al., 1992; Wacker et al., 1994; Wilder, Chen, Atwell, Pritchard, & Weinstein, 2006; Wilder, Harris, Reagan, & Rasey, 2007). Despite numerous studies in the literature that supply evidence for the utility of functional analyses, this assessment tool has not been readily adopted in general education settings. The rationale for the lack of integration are cited as being due to time constraints, the general complexity of the analysis, as well as the impractical nature of this method for use in many public school districts (Axelrod, 1987; Tincani, Castrogiavanni, & Axelrod, 1999). Similar reasoning could also be given for the lack of adoption by behavior analysts to fully market this method of assessment when consulting in general education settings. As a result, teachers, behavior analysts, and other professionals may instead choose to use less reliable assessment methods in order to obtain similar conclusions for the relationships between behavior and the environment (Northup et al., 1991). Still the evidence is definitively clear that functional analysis is the most effective method for identifying the relationship between the environment and behavior (Derby et al., 1992; Wacker et al., 1994). The link between the identification of the contingencies maintaining problematic behavior and the intervention designed and chosen to produce a targeted behavior change has significant implications. Past studies have shown that the accurate identification of behavioral function is crucial to designing an intervention which focuses on replacing the socially inappropriate behavior with an appropriate alternative that will serve the same function (Carr & Durand, 1985; Derby et al., 1992; Mace & Lalli, 1991; Northup et al., 1991; Sasso et al., 1992; Tincani, et al., 1999; Wilder et al., 2007). Brief functional analyses are less time consuming than traditional or extended functional analyses and offer an effective alternative approach in settings in which time, resources, and staffing limitations cannot be made more accommodating (Derby et al., Tincani et al., 1999; Wacker et al., 1994; Wilder et al., 2006; Wilder et al., 2007). Although functional assessments are traditionally performed in least restrictive environments, brief functional analyses may produce more accurate and clear results as well as take less time to conduct. For this reason, general education settings could more readily use this assessment tool in situations in which the maintaining variables may be confounded by simultaneously occurring consequences in the natural environment (e.g. attention and escape). The importance of accurately assessing the function of problematic behavior to determine a functionally equivalent intervention remains an ind","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"47-53"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472087","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Asthma prevalence, morbidity, and mortality in the United States have increased during the past decade despite major national efforts to improve asthma awareness and care (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998). One cause of this increase may be asthma medication non adherence. Asthma sufferers' adherence to asthma medications is very low. Asthma sufferers are less likely to adhere to their medication regimen if the asthma symptoms are either mild or severe, if the medication is expensive, and if the medication side-effects are aversive (Cramer & Spilker, 1991). Several studies have compared participants' self-report with direct measures (e.g., urine testing, pill counting) of medication adherence, and overall these studies suggest that adherence ranges between 10% and 60% (Spector, 2000). Applied behavior analysts have proposed various factors for improving adherence to treatment regimens and have repeatedly shown that adherence responds to properly managed contingencies (Allen & Warzack, 2000). Contingency management systems have been used to increase adherence in a variety of settings, such as schools, communities, and medical settings. Da Costa, Rapoff, Lemanek, and Goldstein (1997) provide one example where a parent effectively implemented a contingency management system to increase asthma medication adherence of two children. The intervention included asthma education and a token system. The token system involved the children earning points for medication adherence and exchanging the points for privileges. Failure to take the prescribed medications resulted in a loss of privileges for one day. However, a spouse-implemented contract on asthma medication adherence by an adult spouse has not been analyzed. Hence, the present study is an extension of da Costa et al. (1997) in that similar techniques (e.g. contingency contract, pulmonary readings) were employed, except the participant dyad was a husband and wife instead of a parent and child. The purpose of this study was to (1) analyze the effectiveness of a contingency contract on asthma medication adherence, (2) to evaluate the effect of transferring contract implementation to the husband and (3) to observe maintenance during nine months of follow-up probes. In addition, the study measured the participant's pulmonary functioning to assess the effect of asthma medication adherence. Method Participants and Setting The participants were Tracy, a 30-year-old woman with asthma and her husband, George. They responded to an ad placed in the local grocery store. Tracy had long-lasting physician-diagnosed asthma symptoms and was non-adherent with her asthma medication regimen. Tracy reported that she was non-adherent because she concluded that irrespective of the medications she took, she would not feel better. Tracy reported having periodically taken her asthma medication without decreasing the frequency, duration, and discomfort elicited by the asthma attacks. The first author, a graduate
{"title":"The Effects of a Spouse Implemented Contingency Contract on Asthma Medication Adherence","authors":"Heidi L. Hillman, L. K. Miller","doi":"10.1037/H0100661","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100661","url":null,"abstract":"Asthma prevalence, morbidity, and mortality in the United States have increased during the past decade despite major national efforts to improve asthma awareness and care (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998). One cause of this increase may be asthma medication non adherence. Asthma sufferers' adherence to asthma medications is very low. Asthma sufferers are less likely to adhere to their medication regimen if the asthma symptoms are either mild or severe, if the medication is expensive, and if the medication side-effects are aversive (Cramer & Spilker, 1991). Several studies have compared participants' self-report with direct measures (e.g., urine testing, pill counting) of medication adherence, and overall these studies suggest that adherence ranges between 10% and 60% (Spector, 2000). Applied behavior analysts have proposed various factors for improving adherence to treatment regimens and have repeatedly shown that adherence responds to properly managed contingencies (Allen & Warzack, 2000). Contingency management systems have been used to increase adherence in a variety of settings, such as schools, communities, and medical settings. Da Costa, Rapoff, Lemanek, and Goldstein (1997) provide one example where a parent effectively implemented a contingency management system to increase asthma medication adherence of two children. The intervention included asthma education and a token system. The token system involved the children earning points for medication adherence and exchanging the points for privileges. Failure to take the prescribed medications resulted in a loss of privileges for one day. However, a spouse-implemented contract on asthma medication adherence by an adult spouse has not been analyzed. Hence, the present study is an extension of da Costa et al. (1997) in that similar techniques (e.g. contingency contract, pulmonary readings) were employed, except the participant dyad was a husband and wife instead of a parent and child. The purpose of this study was to (1) analyze the effectiveness of a contingency contract on asthma medication adherence, (2) to evaluate the effect of transferring contract implementation to the husband and (3) to observe maintenance during nine months of follow-up probes. In addition, the study measured the participant's pulmonary functioning to assess the effect of asthma medication adherence. Method Participants and Setting The participants were Tracy, a 30-year-old woman with asthma and her husband, George. They responded to an ad placed in the local grocery store. Tracy had long-lasting physician-diagnosed asthma symptoms and was non-adherent with her asthma medication regimen. Tracy reported that she was non-adherent because she concluded that irrespective of the medications she took, she would not feel better. Tracy reported having periodically taken her asthma medication without decreasing the frequency, duration, and discomfort elicited by the asthma attacks. The first author, a graduate","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"10 1","pages":"1-6"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472267","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Time delay procedures have been used for teaching skills such as sight words (Gast, Wolery, Morris, Doyle, & Meyer, 1990), sign language (Browder, Morris, & Snell, 1981), social studies and health facts (Wolery, Cybriwsky, Gast, & Boyle-Gast, 1991), spelling (Coleman-Martin & Heller, 2004), instruction following (Striefel, Bryan, & Aikins, 1974), spontaneous speech (Charlop, Schreibman, & Thibodeau, 1985; Ingenmey & Van Houten, 1991; Taylor & Harris, 1995), vocational assembly tasks (Walls, Haught, & Dowler, 1982), gross motor skills (Zhang, Horvat, & Gast, 1994), word identification (Browder, Hines, McCarthy, & Fees, 1984; Lalli & Browder, 1993) and a variety of other skills (Walker, 2008, Wolery, Ault, & Doyle, 1992). Time delay procedures typically involve the presentation of a discriminative stimulus (e.g., a flashcard with the word "LAUNDRY" on it) followed by the delivery of an instructional cue (e.g., "What word is this?") followed by the provision of the controlling prompt (i.e., stating the correct response; e.g., "laundry"). In cases where the delays of 0 s (i.e., no delay) are employed the teaching method is often termed as "errorless learning" (Touchette, 1971, Touchette & Howard, 1984), whereas delays of longer than 0 s are termed as "time delay". In both procedures the controlling prompt cues the student to engage in the correct response (i.e., a prompted correct response). However, once a delay for providing the controlling prompt is introduced the student has the ability to respond to the salient features of the stimulus independent of the controlling prompt which is the goal of any instructional strategy (i.e., providing independent correct responses). Two typically utilized time delay procedures are constant time delay and progressive time delay procedures (Walker, 2008). Both procedures are similar in implementation: the presentation of the discriminative stimulus, paired with the delivery of an instructional cue with a specified delay to the controlling prompt. The procedures differ on how the delay to when the provision of the controlling prompt is provided. In constant time delay, an arbitrary delay is often selected (e.g., 5 s; Coleman-Martin & Heller, 2004; Lalli, Casey, Goh, & Merlino, 1994), however in progressive time delay, the delay is typically faded in increments (e.g., 1-2 s) based on preset number or percentage of correct responding criteria (e.g., correct responses in 3 consecutive trials; Taylor & Harris, 1995). The effectiveness of both versions of these time delay procedures have been documented through literature reviews regarding time delay procedures (Handen & Zane, 1987; Walker, 2008). However, it has been reported that constant time delay procedures have been associated with slightly more errors and longer delays in the transfer of stimulus control (i.e., correct responding no longer being cued by the controlling prompt; Walker, 2008). Thus, progressive time delay procedures appear to have some advantages
{"title":"A Comparison of within- and across-Session Progressive Time Delay Procedures for Teaching Sight Words to Individuals with Cognitive Delays.","authors":"S. D. Casey","doi":"10.1037/H0100656","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100656","url":null,"abstract":"Time delay procedures have been used for teaching skills such as sight words (Gast, Wolery, Morris, Doyle, & Meyer, 1990), sign language (Browder, Morris, & Snell, 1981), social studies and health facts (Wolery, Cybriwsky, Gast, & Boyle-Gast, 1991), spelling (Coleman-Martin & Heller, 2004), instruction following (Striefel, Bryan, & Aikins, 1974), spontaneous speech (Charlop, Schreibman, & Thibodeau, 1985; Ingenmey & Van Houten, 1991; Taylor & Harris, 1995), vocational assembly tasks (Walls, Haught, & Dowler, 1982), gross motor skills (Zhang, Horvat, & Gast, 1994), word identification (Browder, Hines, McCarthy, & Fees, 1984; Lalli & Browder, 1993) and a variety of other skills (Walker, 2008, Wolery, Ault, & Doyle, 1992). Time delay procedures typically involve the presentation of a discriminative stimulus (e.g., a flashcard with the word \"LAUNDRY\" on it) followed by the delivery of an instructional cue (e.g., \"What word is this?\") followed by the provision of the controlling prompt (i.e., stating the correct response; e.g., \"laundry\"). In cases where the delays of 0 s (i.e., no delay) are employed the teaching method is often termed as \"errorless learning\" (Touchette, 1971, Touchette & Howard, 1984), whereas delays of longer than 0 s are termed as \"time delay\". In both procedures the controlling prompt cues the student to engage in the correct response (i.e., a prompted correct response). However, once a delay for providing the controlling prompt is introduced the student has the ability to respond to the salient features of the stimulus independent of the controlling prompt which is the goal of any instructional strategy (i.e., providing independent correct responses). Two typically utilized time delay procedures are constant time delay and progressive time delay procedures (Walker, 2008). Both procedures are similar in implementation: the presentation of the discriminative stimulus, paired with the delivery of an instructional cue with a specified delay to the controlling prompt. The procedures differ on how the delay to when the provision of the controlling prompt is provided. In constant time delay, an arbitrary delay is often selected (e.g., 5 s; Coleman-Martin & Heller, 2004; Lalli, Casey, Goh, & Merlino, 1994), however in progressive time delay, the delay is typically faded in increments (e.g., 1-2 s) based on preset number or percentage of correct responding criteria (e.g., correct responses in 3 consecutive trials; Taylor & Harris, 1995). The effectiveness of both versions of these time delay procedures have been documented through literature reviews regarding time delay procedures (Handen & Zane, 1987; Walker, 2008). However, it has been reported that constant time delay procedures have been associated with slightly more errors and longer delays in the transfer of stimulus control (i.e., correct responding no longer being cued by the controlling prompt; Walker, 2008). Thus, progressive time delay procedures appear to have some advantages","PeriodicalId":88717,"journal":{"name":"The behavior analyst today","volume":"9 1","pages":"162-171"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-06-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58472136","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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