(−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is commonly used as an antioxidant, whereas it is more hydrophilic to effectively exhibit antioxidant activities in oil/water interface of emulsions. Food-derived proteins with higher hydrophobicity can enhance the stability of oil-in-water emulsions by keeping the EGCG at the emulsion interfaces. This study utilized oyster-water-soluble protein (OWP)–EGCG complex, incorporating OWPs extracted from oysters and linseed oil to establish the emulsion system. Optimal conditions for preparing the emulsion were found to be at concentration of 1 mg/mL and 10% oil phase, resulting in the smallest particle size and highest absolute value of zeta potential. Various analyses, including particle size, zeta potential, laser confocal microscopy, cold-field scanning electron microscopy, and three-phase contact angle indicated that ratio of 1:0.05 (OWPs to EGCG) provided the best emulsion stability and antioxidant effects during storage, whereas the ratio of 1:0.1 showed the highest in vitro antioxidant stability during gastrointestinal digestion. Notably, the low ratio (1:0.025) of EGCG led to pro-oxidation, as evidenced by increased levels of 2,4-heptadienal and 2,4-decadienal during storage.
Practical Application: This study offers essential insights for creating stable, antioxidant oil-in-water emulsions that utilize proteins derived from food sources and EGCG. It illustrates the importance of optimizing the ratio of protein to EGCG, which is vital not only for enhancing emulsion stability and antioxidant effectiveness during storage but also for facilitating proper antioxidant release during the digestion process. The results underline the potential for pro-oxidation at lower concentrations of EGCG, providing researchers with a method to mitigate this adverse effect in product formulation. This understanding is readily applicable to the design of functional foods, beverages, and systems for delivering nutraceuticals, where it is crucial to control the release and protect oxidation-sensitive bioactive compounds (such as linseed oil) in emulsified forms.
Low-moisture packaged snacks—such as crackers, granola bars, cookies, and cereals—account for a substantial portion of saturated fats in the diet, predominantly of young consumers, which can lead to chronic health issues such as obesity, high blood pressure, and cardiovascular diseases, among others. Simply replacing a considerable portion of saturated fats with unsaturated ones in manufactured foods is often challenging or not feasible, as it compromises the oxidative stability of the product. Accelerated lipid oxidation results in quality degradation and reduced shelf life of the foodstuff, ultimately leading to food waste and considerable economic losses. This review aims to study the mechanisms and factors influencing lipid oxidation in low-moisture packaged snacks by analyzing current literature on lipid oxidation processes and the effectiveness of various inhibition strategies; these include the employment of antioxidants and packaging technologies as well as methods to improve the oxidative stability of the products, thereby enhancing their shelf life, nutritional value, and overall contribution to consumer health. Addressing these challenges is critical for improving public health and reducing food waste.
Practical Applications: Lipid oxidation is a fundamental quality determinant in low-moisture packaged snacks, and a clear understanding of its mechanisms and prevention strategies is essential for food scientists, product developers, and quality assurance teams in the snack food industry. This review offers a detailed examination of the stages of lipid oxidation and the factors influencing its progression. By effectively managing lipid oxidation, food manufacturers can significantly reduce food waste, extend product shelf life, and lower costs associated with quality degradation. Moreover, these strategies support sustainable food production by reducing both waste and resource consumption, aligning with industry goals for environmental responsibility. Implementing these practices also enables companies to meet evolving regulatory standards, especially given the increasing demand for natural ingredients. Embracing these approaches not only fosters innovative product formulations but also opens new market opportunities, ensuring that companies remain competitive in a dynamic and growing industry.
This study investigated the impact of fortifying yoghurt with African walnut (Plukenetia conophora) on its fatty acid (FA) profile, physicochemical properties, microbial profile, oxidative stability, and sensory attributes. Yoghurts made from cow milk were fortified with 0%, 1%, or 2% African walnut (AW) paste and evaluated over 14 days of refrigerated storage. AW fortification increased crude fat, phytochemical constituents, and concentrations of C18:1n − 9 and C18:3n − 3 while reducing C14:0, C16:0, and C18:0 levels (p < 0.05). FA composition remained stable in AW-fortified yoghurts, but the control showed an increase in saturated FAs and a reduction in C18:1n − 9 and C18:3n − 3 over time. Although color, Lactobacillus count, and lipid oxidation were unaffected, carbonyl content and syneresis decreased with AW fortification. Sensory results showed that younger assessors (19–39 years) preferred the control yoghurt, whereas older assessors (40–52 years) favored the 2% AW-enriched yoghurt for its taste, texture, and overall quality. Principal component analysis revealed that AW fortification significantly influenced the quality attributes of yoghurt during chilled storage, with AW-2 samples showing improved compositional integrity and reduced quality deterioration over time. AW fortification improved yoghurt's nutritional value and oxidative stability, making it a promising functional food, especially for older consumers.
Practical Applications: Yoghurts are typically high in saturated fatty acids (SFAs) but low in n − 3 fatty acids. A high intake of SFAs can pose health risks, highlighting the need to increase the n − 3 fatty acid content in yoghurt. Fortification with African walnut boosts C18:3n − 3 levels and reduces SFAs, making the yoghurt a healthier choice. In addition, the reduced carbonyl content and syneresis indicate an extended shelf life and improved quality. The age-related sensory preferences observed in this study suggest that African walnut–enriched yoghurt may be more appealing to older consumers, who value overall quality. This fortification could lead to the development of functional foods tailored to different age groups, encouraging healthier eating habits. Processors can use this approach to create yoghurt products with enhanced health benefits, addressing consumer demand for nutritious and functional dairy options.
Reverse micelles ubiquitously assemble in the presence of water and amphiphilic substances in edible oils and are the primary locations for oxidation-related reactions. This study revealed the role of reverse micelles in controlling the efficiencies of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and epigallocatechin (EGC) in suppressing the heating-induced deterioration of camellia oil. Using hydroperoxides, conjugated dienes, and carbonylic compounds, we determined that reverse micelles could dually regulate the efficiencies of EGCG and EGC in suppressing the degradation of camellia oil. In particular, reverse micelles in an aliquot containing 500 µmol/kg EGC positively controlled EGC activity; however, those containing 500, 10, and 10 µmol/kg of EGCG, EGC, and EGCG, respectively, showed negative effects to corresponding phenolic compounds. Thus, the influence of reverse micelles depends on the concentration and polarity of phenolic compounds. This study provides a new perspective for the development of antioxidant strategies for camellia oil.
Practical Application: This study highlights the critical role of reverse micelles in modulating the antioxidant efficiency of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and epigallocatechin (EGC) in camellia oil. Understanding how reverse micelles influence these antioxidants’ activity depending on their concentration and polarity provides valuable insight for optimizing antioxidant formulations in edible oils. These results can guide the design of more effective antioxidant delivery systems or processing conditions to enhance the oxidative stability and shelf life of camellia oil and potentially other edible oils.
A quantitative and in-house validated gas chromatography–flame ionization detector (GC-FID) method for the analysis of methyl esters of very long chain (C24–C30, 4–8 double bonds) polyunsaturated fatty acids (VLC-PUFAs) in triglyceride (TG) fish oils has been developed. Quantification of VLC-PUFA was obtained by use of empirical response factors relative to the long-chain PUFA DHA. The identification of VLC-PUFA was achieved using GC-positive chemical ionization-mass spectroscopy (PCI-MS) and electron ionization-mass spectroscopy (EI-MS) fragmentation patterns. Method performance parameters have been investigated: Results showed a high linearity (r = 0.999, n = 15, p < 0.001), an overall accuracy/recovery of 98% ± 0.3%, repeatability of 0.8%, and precision of 1.7%. Limit of detection of individual VLC-PUFA was in the range of 0.2 mg/g (S/N = 3). The results have shown that the GC-FID method is applicable for quantifying the levels of individual VLC-PUFA and the total amount of VLC-PUFA levels in TG fish oils in the range of 20–70 mg/g fish oil.
Practical Applications: Our results have shown that it is possible to obtain a routine quantitative determination of the methyl esters of the individual VLC-PUFA in triglyceride fish oils after an initial GC-EI-MS and GC-PCI-MS confirmation of the fatty acid structures. Investigation of method performance parameters has shown that our requirements for linearity, accuracy, repeatability, precision, and limit of quantification and detection have been met. The results show that the GC-FID method is able to quantify the total amount of VLC-PUFA levels in triglyceride fish oils in the range of 20–70 mg/g fish oil. This method may represent a useful tool for determining VLC-PUFA content in commercial fish oil products. The method could also have the potential to be used with other types of lipids, such as ethyl esters, free fatty acids, phospholipids, wax esters, and even extracts of biological samples.
Poly(limonene carbonate) (PLimC) is a promising material in the search for bio-based alternatives to fossil-based plastics, such as poly(styrene) and bisphenol A-based polycarbonates. PLimC is made from orange waste-derived limonene oxide (LimO) and CO2. The brittle behavior of PLimC remains a challenge for industrial applications. A possible solution could be the introduction of low Tg polymer grafts. The terpolymerization of trans-LimO, trans-menth-1-ene oxide (Men1O), and CO2 was shown to yield a terpolymer that can be used as a platform for controlled functionalization and tailored graft copolymerization. To transform the terpolymer into a macroinitiator for atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), the PLimC double bonds were post-modified with hydroxyl groups via thiol-ene click reaction of 2-mercaptoethanol and subsequently esterified with 2-bromoisobutyryl bromide (BiB). n-Butyl acrylate (nBA) was chosen as a bio-based monomer for grafting-from copolymerization to introduce low Tg side chains that increase the ductility of the otherwise brittle PLimC. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was used to show the narrow molecular weight distribution of the side chains. Non-wovens made from PMen1C-g-PnBA were produced via electrospinning. PMen1C-g-PnBA was added as a compatibilizer for blends of PLimC and poly(n-butyl acrylate) (PnBA) and as a toughening agent for PLimC.
Practical Applications: PMen1C-g-PnBA shows tunable mechanical properties by variation of PnBA content and graft density. Poly(limonene carbonate)’s brittle nature could be compensated by addition of PMen1C-g-PnBA, therefore opening up many possible industrial applications for PLimC to replace common fossil-based plastics. Additionally, filter applications of PMen1C-g-PnBA as sustainable electrospun non-wovens are possible.
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