Pub Date : 2021-10-30DOI: 10.9734/ibrr/2021/v13i130162
Akwo Mekalo Nya-Nweme, J. Enoh, B. Pokam, B. T. Fominyam, J. Assob
Background and Objective: Helicobacter pylori (HP) is a very common human infection worldwide, colonizing the stomach of 50% of the world’s population. H. pylori play a major role in the development of iron deficiency, chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer and gastric cancer. H. pylori infection is more prevalent in developing countries and its acquisition is predominant in childhood. The aim was to determine the prevalence of HP and its association with serum iron levels in children aged 1-12 years attending the Buea Regional Hospital. Methods: This was a hospital based cross sectional study involving 189 children. About 2 mL venous blood was collected and analyzed using immunoassay diaspot one step H. pylori Test Device and spectrophotometers to determine H. pylori immunoglobulin G and serum iron level respectively. Chi-square and Odd ratio test were used to determine the association at 95% confidence interval. Results: A prevalence of 31.7% (60/189) and 47.1% (73/155) for H. pylori and low serum iron level was observed respectively. There was significantly associated between H. pylori and serum iron levels, with majority (60% (36/60)) of the HP positive participants having normal iron level 60% (36/60) (P=0.007 χ2=9.91). A significant association was also observed between HP and Anemia, with majority (41.67% (25/60)) of those positive for HP experienced mild anemia (P=0.009 χ2=11.55). H. pylori was more prevalent among males 38.04% (35/92) compared to 25.77% (25/97) for females. Conclusion: This study recorded 31.7% and 47.1% prevalence of H. pylori and low serum iron level respectively, in the studied population. Male gender was most likely to be infected with H. pylori infection and children of age group 5 ≤ - < 9 years recorded the highest HP infection. There was significantly associated between H. pylori and serum iron levels, as well as H. pylori and type of anemia, although majority of H. pylori positive individuals had high serum iron level and mild anemia. This may imply that HP remains one of many risk factors or comorbidities of anemia and abnormal iron levels.
{"title":"Association of H. pylori with Serum Iron Levels and Some Risk Factors in Children Aged 1-12 Years Attending the Buea Regional Hospital","authors":"Akwo Mekalo Nya-Nweme, J. Enoh, B. Pokam, B. T. Fominyam, J. Assob","doi":"10.9734/ibrr/2021/v13i130162","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/ibrr/2021/v13i130162","url":null,"abstract":"Background and Objective: Helicobacter pylori (HP) is a very common human infection worldwide, colonizing the stomach of 50% of the world’s population. H. pylori play a major role in the development of iron deficiency, chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer and gastric cancer. H. pylori infection is more prevalent in developing countries and its acquisition is predominant in childhood. The aim was to determine the prevalence of HP and its association with serum iron levels in children aged 1-12 years attending the Buea Regional Hospital. \u0000Methods: This was a hospital based cross sectional study involving 189 children. About 2 mL venous blood was collected and analyzed using immunoassay diaspot one step H. pylori Test Device and spectrophotometers to determine H. pylori immunoglobulin G and serum iron level respectively. Chi-square and Odd ratio test were used to determine the association at 95% confidence interval. \u0000Results: A prevalence of 31.7% (60/189) and 47.1% (73/155) for H. pylori and low serum iron level was observed respectively. There was significantly associated between H. pylori and serum iron levels, with majority (60% (36/60)) of the HP positive participants having normal iron level 60% (36/60) (P=0.007 χ2=9.91). A significant association was also observed between HP and Anemia, with majority (41.67% (25/60)) of those positive for HP experienced mild anemia (P=0.009 χ2=11.55). H. pylori was more prevalent among males 38.04% (35/92) compared to 25.77% (25/97) for females. \u0000Conclusion: This study recorded 31.7% and 47.1% prevalence of H. pylori and low serum iron level respectively, in the studied population. Male gender was most likely to be infected with H. pylori infection and children of age group 5 ≤ - < 9 years recorded the highest HP infection. There was significantly associated between H. pylori and serum iron levels, as well as H. pylori and type of anemia, although majority of H. pylori positive individuals had high serum iron level and mild anemia. This may imply that HP remains one of many risk factors or comorbidities of anemia and abnormal iron levels.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78290944","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-09-27DOI: 10.9734/ibrr/2021/v13i130160
Jonathan, Nyebuchi, Roseline Emeji, K. Eedee
Coronaviruses are a group of related RNA viruses that cause disease in mammals and birds. Covid-19 infection occurs due to an RNA virus which is single-stranded, called SARS-CoV-2; this virus is similar to SARS-CoV. This review throws light on the available laboratory techniques used for testing coronavirus. Certain challenges are encountered during the development of a diagnostic test for a novel pathogen, which depends on sensitivity of the method, that is, the potential in detecting very low pathogen level for early laboratory diagnosis, produce little or no interference with other strains of the virus, and produce results rapidly. Since the time of incubation and clinical manifestation of the infection are relatively the same with SARS, the widespread and effect of COVID-19 globally serve as the basis why the development of quick and reliable laboratory methods are necessary. Samples that could be collected for covid-19 testing includes blood (especially for screening purpose), nasal and throat swab. Currently, the gold standard method for laboratory diagnosis of Covid-19 infection is RT-PCR, which serves as a confirmatory method for Covid-19 testing. EIA and SVN laboratory techniques are other techniques used in detecting the viral infection. In addition, Rapid Diagnostic Testing (RDT) are currently developed for point-of-care testing, and often used as a screening method of Covid-19 infections. Early detection of the virus remains the primary focus for the treatment and control of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Therefore, this review was aimed at the available laboratory methods used in the diagnosis for coronavirus infection.
{"title":"Laboratory Methods for COVID-19 Diagnosis","authors":"Jonathan, Nyebuchi, Roseline Emeji, K. Eedee","doi":"10.9734/ibrr/2021/v13i130160","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/ibrr/2021/v13i130160","url":null,"abstract":"Coronaviruses are a group of related RNA viruses that cause disease in mammals and birds. Covid-19 infection occurs due to an RNA virus which is single-stranded, called SARS-CoV-2; this virus is similar to SARS-CoV. This review throws light on the available laboratory techniques used for testing coronavirus. Certain challenges are encountered during the development of a diagnostic test for a novel pathogen, which depends on sensitivity of the method, that is, the potential in detecting very low pathogen level for early laboratory diagnosis, produce little or no interference with other strains of the virus, and produce results rapidly. Since the time of incubation and clinical manifestation of the infection are relatively the same with SARS, the widespread and effect of COVID-19 globally serve as the basis why the development of quick and reliable laboratory methods are necessary. Samples that could be collected for covid-19 testing includes blood (especially for screening purpose), nasal and throat swab. Currently, the gold standard method for laboratory diagnosis of Covid-19 infection is RT-PCR, which serves as a confirmatory method for Covid-19 testing. EIA and SVN laboratory techniques are other techniques used in detecting the viral infection. In addition, Rapid Diagnostic Testing (RDT) are currently developed for point-of-care testing, and often used as a screening method of Covid-19 infections. Early detection of the virus remains the primary focus for the treatment and control of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Therefore, this review was aimed at the available laboratory methods used in the diagnosis for coronavirus infection.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90541228","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-09-13DOI: 10.9734/ibrr/2021/v12i430159
Anya Ojiugo Hannah, Nwachuku Edna Ogechi, A. Hellen, Bartimaeus, Ebirien-Agana Samuel
Place and Duration of Study: Sample: Abia State University Teaching Hospital, Aba, Abia State and Laboratory Department, JAROS Inspection Services Limited, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, between April 2018 and June 2018. Methodology: A total of 204 samples comprising of 123 auto-mechanics and 81 non -auto-mechanics were assayed. Detailed information of the bio-data of the subjects including age, gender, medical history, health information and lifestyle were obtained from each participant. Blood samples were collected from for the analysis of inflammation markers, IL-6, TNF-α and CRP were determined using standard methods and techniques. The effect of age and duration of exposure on the inflammation parameters were considered. Statistical Analysis System (SAS), STAT 15.1, developed by SAS Institute, North Carolina State University, USA was used for statistical analysis. Data were presented as Mean ± SEM, comparison of means of groups that are more than two was done using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and the Tukey test of multiple comparison was used to test for variance within and across groups. Results: There was significant increase in the means of IL-6, TNF-α and CRP in the exposed subjects (p <0.05) compared with the control subjects There was no significant difference (p >0.05) in the means of IL-6, TNF-α and C-reactive protein (CRP) between the age groups of the exposed and the control subjects. Similarly, there was no significant difference between the groups, based on duration of exposure. This suggests that the toxic effect does not depend on the age or duration of exposure but on other factors for the automechanics in Aba. Conclusion: This study shows that the exposure of automechanics may significantly increase the serum IL-6 TNF-α and Hs-CRP levels. Increase in the serum levels of the inflammation markers is predictive of the danger of future pathology in automechanics compared with non automechanics in Aba metropolis. Age and duration did not influence significant variation in the automechanics.
研究地点和时间:样本:2018年4月至2018年6月期间，阿比亚州阿巴的阿比亚州立大学教学医院和河流州哈科特港JAROS检验服务有限公司实验室部门。方法:对204份样本进行分析，其中自动修理工123份，非自动修理工81份。从每个参与者那里获得了详细的生物数据信息，包括年龄、性别、病史、健康信息和生活方式。采集血样分析炎症标志物，采用标准方法和技术测定IL-6、TNF-α和CRP。考虑了年龄和暴露时间对炎症参数的影响。采用美国北卡罗莱纳州立大学SAS研究所开发的统计分析系统(SAS) STAT 15.1进行统计分析。数据以均数±SEM表示，多于两组的均数比较采用方差分析(ANOVA)，组内和组间方差采用多重比较的Tukey检验。结果:暴露组IL-6、TNF-α、CRP均值与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(p < 0.05);暴露组各年龄组IL-6、TNF-α、c反应蛋白(CRP)均值与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(p < 0.05)。同样，根据暴露时间，两组之间也没有显著差异。这表明，Aba的毒性效应不取决于暴露的年龄或持续时间，而是取决于其他因素。结论:自动机暴露可显著提高血清IL-6、TNF-α和Hs-CRP水平。在阿坝市区，与非汽车修理工相比，汽车修理工的血清炎症标志物水平升高可预测未来病理的危险。年龄和持续时间对汽车力学的显著变化没有影响。
{"title":"Inflammatory Markers in Workers Occupationally Exposed to Petrol and Petroleum Products","authors":"Anya Ojiugo Hannah, Nwachuku Edna Ogechi, A. Hellen, Bartimaeus, Ebirien-Agana Samuel","doi":"10.9734/ibrr/2021/v12i430159","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/ibrr/2021/v12i430159","url":null,"abstract":"Place and Duration of Study: Sample: Abia State University Teaching Hospital, Aba, Abia State and Laboratory Department, JAROS Inspection Services Limited, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, between April 2018 and June 2018. \u0000Methodology: A total of 204 samples comprising of 123 auto-mechanics and 81 non -auto-mechanics were assayed. Detailed information of the bio-data of the subjects including age, gender, medical history, health information and lifestyle were obtained from each participant. Blood samples were collected from for the analysis of inflammation markers, IL-6, TNF-α and CRP were determined using standard methods and techniques. The effect of age and duration of exposure on the inflammation parameters were considered. Statistical Analysis System (SAS), STAT 15.1, developed by SAS Institute, North Carolina State University, USA was used for statistical analysis. Data were presented as Mean ± SEM, comparison of means of groups that are more than two was done using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and the Tukey test of multiple comparison was used to test for variance within and across groups. \u0000Results: There was significant increase in the means of IL-6, TNF-α and CRP in the exposed subjects (p <0.05) compared with the control subjects There was no significant difference (p >0.05) in the means of IL-6, TNF-α and C-reactive protein (CRP) between the age groups of the exposed and the control subjects. Similarly, there was no significant difference between the groups, based on duration of exposure. This suggests that the toxic effect does not depend on the age or duration of exposure but on other factors for the automechanics in Aba. \u0000Conclusion: This study shows that the exposure of automechanics may significantly increase the serum IL-6 TNF-α and Hs-CRP levels. Increase in the serum levels of the inflammation markers is predictive of the danger of future pathology in automechanics compared with non automechanics in Aba metropolis. Age and duration did not influence significant variation in the automechanics.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83262584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-09-07DOI: 10.9734/ibrr/2021/v12i430158
R. Setia, Mitu Dogra, Gokhula Prasath Thangavel, R. Yadav, A. Rahman, A. Bhasin, R. Pande, Sandeep Nayar, R. Singal, A. Vardani, D. Pande, R. Saini, Tribhuvan Gulati, Vindu Prakash Singh, S. Kalra, Gagan Anand, M. Garg, S. Ghai, N. Agarwal
Background: COVID-19 pandemic continues threatening the world with no effective treatment to tackle the menace. Till date, there is conflicting evidence on efficacy of CP in reducing COVID-19 related mortality. The objective of this study was to see disease progression and 7, 14 and 28-day mortality after CP therapy and analyze CP efficacy with/without Remdesivir. Materials and Methods: A retrospective single-centre observational study done from August 20, 2020, to 20 November 2020. Records of 294 COVID-19 patients with moderate to severe disease given CP therapy were analysed based on disease progression and length of hospital stay, further subcategorized on age, clinical profile, risk factors, ward/ICU, ventilatory support and co-administration of Remdesivir. Results: Lowest 7-day mortality rate was seen within age group 20-40 years (0%) and was highest in ≥61 years (24.3%). 87 patients on ventilatory support showed higher 28day mortality (48.28%) compared to non-ventilated (10.14%), (P<0.00001). Lesser 7-day mortality was seen in early CP therapy ≤3 days of admission (P=0.01). Patients requiring ICU admission showed higher 14 and 28-day mortality compared to ward P=0.001%). Median (IQR) length of hospital stay from CP transfusion was shorter, 4 (3 to 9) days in group 2 (CP only) compared to 7 (4 to 12) days in group1 (CP+Remdesivir ). Conclusion: CP therapy in ≤3 days of hospital admission in COVID-19 patients with moderate to severe infection not on ventilatory support showed reduction in mortality and length of hospital stay. Length of hospital stay was shorter in the CP-only group as compared to the CP+ Remdesivir group.
{"title":"Convalescent Plasma for COVID-19- is it Time to Say Goodbye? A Single-Center, Retrospective, Observational Study from Northern India","authors":"R. Setia, Mitu Dogra, Gokhula Prasath Thangavel, R. Yadav, A. Rahman, A. Bhasin, R. Pande, Sandeep Nayar, R. Singal, A. Vardani, D. Pande, R. Saini, Tribhuvan Gulati, Vindu Prakash Singh, S. Kalra, Gagan Anand, M. Garg, S. Ghai, N. Agarwal","doi":"10.9734/ibrr/2021/v12i430158","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/ibrr/2021/v12i430158","url":null,"abstract":"Background: COVID-19 pandemic continues threatening the world with no effective treatment to tackle the menace. Till date, there is conflicting evidence on efficacy of CP in reducing COVID-19 related mortality. The objective of this study was to see disease progression and 7, 14 and 28-day mortality after CP therapy and analyze CP efficacy with/without Remdesivir. \u0000Materials and Methods: A retrospective single-centre observational study done from August 20, 2020, to 20 November 2020. Records of 294 COVID-19 patients with moderate to severe disease given CP therapy were analysed based on disease progression and length of hospital stay, further subcategorized on age, clinical profile, risk factors, ward/ICU, ventilatory support and co-administration of Remdesivir. \u0000Results: Lowest 7-day mortality rate was seen within age group 20-40 years (0%) and was highest in ≥61 years (24.3%). 87 patients on ventilatory support showed higher 28day mortality (48.28%) compared to non-ventilated (10.14%), (P<0.00001). Lesser 7-day mortality was seen in early CP therapy ≤3 days of admission (P=0.01). Patients requiring ICU admission showed higher 14 and 28-day mortality compared to ward P=0.001%). Median (IQR) length of hospital stay from CP transfusion was shorter, 4 (3 to 9) days in group 2 (CP only) compared to 7 (4 to 12) days in group1 (CP+Remdesivir ). \u0000Conclusion: CP therapy in ≤3 days of hospital admission in COVID-19 patients with moderate to severe infection not on ventilatory support showed reduction in mortality and length of hospital stay. Length of hospital stay was shorter in the CP-only group as compared to the CP+ Remdesivir group.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77963708","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-06-02DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330153
P. Martinez, J. Flores, J. Vidal
Aims: To determine the survival of patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and COVID-19. Study Design: Prospective, analytical and relational. Place and Duration of Study: Hematology department, Hospital of Specialties, High Specialty Medical Unit, National Medical Center "Gral. Manuel Avila Camacho", Puebla, Mexico, during the period June 2020-April 2021 Methodology: Patients aged 15 to 64 years, both sexes, with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 by PCR. The variables included were; sex, age (groups: 15-20; 21-29; 30-39; 40-49; 50-59; and 60-64), comorbidities, general treatment and hematological treatment response. Survival was determined for the diagnosis of COVID-19 for 11 months, using Original Research Article Martinez et al.; IBRR, 12(3): 32-39, 2021; Article no.IBRR.68658 33 the Kaplan Meier estimator and the Log-Rak test; Cox regression model (univariate and multivariate); as well as Chi square and V-Cramer with a 95% confidence interval and using the statistical program SPSS Ver. 25. Results: The study consisted of 20 patients, of which 33.3% were women, with an average age of 37.75 ± 11.63 years; The men registered an age of 28.50 ± 18.05 years. Overall survival was 50%, with a lower limit of 101.3 and an upper limit of 242.5 days, with a mean of 171.9 days; and median at 17 days. No significant differences were found in survival regarding sex, comorbidities, general treatment and hematological response. However, mortality in patients with comorbidities was higher (p = 0.051). Conclusion: Survival in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and COVID-19 is low, due to complications that increase mortality, mainly owing to hematological suppression, and even more so with the presence of comorbidities.
{"title":"Survival in Patients with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and COVID-19 in Mexico","authors":"P. Martinez, J. Flores, J. Vidal","doi":"10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330153","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330153","url":null,"abstract":"Aims: To determine the survival of patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and COVID-19. Study Design: Prospective, analytical and relational. Place and Duration of Study: Hematology department, Hospital of Specialties, High Specialty Medical Unit, National Medical Center \"Gral. Manuel Avila Camacho\", Puebla, Mexico, during the period June 2020-April 2021 Methodology: Patients aged 15 to 64 years, both sexes, with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 by PCR. The variables included were; sex, age (groups: 15-20; 21-29; 30-39; 40-49; 50-59; and 60-64), comorbidities, general treatment and hematological treatment response. Survival was determined for the diagnosis of COVID-19 for 11 months, using Original Research Article Martinez et al.; IBRR, 12(3): 32-39, 2021; Article no.IBRR.68658 33 the Kaplan Meier estimator and the Log-Rak test; Cox regression model (univariate and multivariate); as well as Chi square and V-Cramer with a 95% confidence interval and using the statistical program SPSS Ver. 25. Results: The study consisted of 20 patients, of which 33.3% were women, with an average age of 37.75 ± 11.63 years; The men registered an age of 28.50 ± 18.05 years. Overall survival was 50%, with a lower limit of 101.3 and an upper limit of 242.5 days, with a mean of 171.9 days; and median at 17 days. No significant differences were found in survival regarding sex, comorbidities, general treatment and hematological response. However, mortality in patients with comorbidities was higher (p = 0.051). Conclusion: Survival in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and COVID-19 is low, due to complications that increase mortality, mainly owing to hematological suppression, and even more so with the presence of comorbidities.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83992793","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-21DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330152
J. E. Wenah-Emmanuel, E. Eze, E. O. Nwachuku, E. Wenah, Z. Jeremiah
Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the Gene Frequencies of Human Platelet Alloantigens in Rivers-State, Nigeria based on ABO/Rhesus blood groups distribution Study Design: A randomized controlled trial. Place and Duration of Study: Rivers State University Medical Centre, Port Harcourt, Safety Molecular Pathology Laboratory, Enugu State, Justcare clinical laboratory Port Harcourt Rivers State and University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, between October 2019 and March 2020. Methodology: The subjects consisted of apparently healthy individuals who were of Rivers State origin totaling 104 persons aged 17 to 42 years. They were under-graduate and post graduate students of Rivers State University of Port Harcourt. Five major ethnic groups were considered which included Ikwerre, Ogoni, Ijaw, Etche and Ogba. Their demographic information was collected using a sample register and a questionnaire. Samples were collected from the antecubital vein. 10ml of blood was collected, 5ml was transferred into EDTA sample bottle (Ethylene diamine tetracetic acid) while 2ml was dispensed into plain bottle and labeled accordingly. Serological testing Original Research Article Wenah-Emmanuel et al.; IBRR, 12(3): 23-31, 2021; Article no.IBRR.68552 24 including HIV (RVS) screening, HBsag, HCV and VDRL were all as part of the inclusion criteria immediately after samples were collected. The remaining sample was analyzed using genotyping of Human Platelet Antigens by High Resolution Melting Curve Analysis Polymerase Chain Reaction (HRM-PCR), while tile method also known as forward/cell grouping method which is based on haem-agglutination reaction was used for ABO/Rh blood grouping. The melt curve analysis was done using the MicPCR software while the frequency analysis was done using Number Cruncher Statistical Software (NCSS) Version 13. GraphPad Prism Version 8.0.2 was used to determine the statistical significance between the various HPA genotypes and the ethnic groups and p-values of < 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant. Results were presented in percentages, mean+/standard deviation and in tables Results: The results showed that the A blood group had highest frequencies of 19.2% and 17.7% for HPA-5 b/b and HPA-4 a/a, while the least was 0.8% each for HPA-3 a/a, HPA-4 b/b and HPA-5. For blood group B, the highest were 20.0% (HPA-5 b/b) and 16.7% (HPA-3 b/b), and the least were 5.0% each for HPA-1 b/b and HPA-4 a/b, while blood group B had highest frequencies for HPA-1 a/a, HPA-2 b/b, HPA-3 b/b, HPA-4 a/b and HPA-5 b/b (20.0% each). The blood group O + HPA gene patterns had their highest values at 19.7% (HPA-5 b/b), 16.5% (HPA-4 a/a) and 13.7% (HPA-3 b/b) and the least was 7.9% (HPA-1 a/b), while for the blood group O , the highest was observed for HPA-3 b/b and HPA-5 b/b (20.0% each) and the least for HPA-1 a/a and a/b, HPA-2 a/b and b/b, and HPA-4 a/b and b/b (10.0% each). Conclusion: Based on the results, we conclude that A blood group had
目的:本研究的目的是基于ABO/恒河猴血型分布来评估尼日利亚Rivers-State地区人类血小板异体抗原的基因频率。学习地点和时间:2019年10月至2020年3月期间，河流州立大学医学中心，哈科特港，安全分子病理学实验室，埃努古州，Justcare临床实验室哈科特港河州和哈科特港教学医院大学。方法:研究对象由表面健康的河流州人组成，共104人，年龄在17至42岁之间。他们是哈科特港河河州立大学的本科生和研究生。考虑了五个主要民族，包括伊克维尔、奥戈尼、伊贾、埃切和奥格巴。他们的人口统计信息是通过抽样登记和问卷收集的。从肘前静脉采集样本。取血10ml，取5ml入EDTA样品瓶(乙二胺四乙酸)，取2ml入普通瓶并贴上标签。原研究文章Wenah-Emmanuel et al;中国生物医学工程学报，12(3):23-31,2021;文章no.IBRR。68552 24包括HIV (RVS)筛查、HBsag、HCV和VDRL均在样本采集后立即作为纳入标准的一部分。剩余样本采用高分辨率熔融曲线聚合酶链式反应(HRM-PCR)对人血小板抗原进行基因分型，ABO/Rh血型分型采用基于血凝反应的正向/细胞分型法。熔融曲线分析使用MicPCR软件完成，频率分析使用Number Cruncher Statistical software (NCSS) Version 13完成。采用GraphPad Prism Version 8.0.2检测各HPA基因型与民族间的差异，p值< 0.05为差异有统计学意义。结果以百分比、平均值+/标准差和表的形式表示。结果:A血型HPA-5 A /b和HPA-4 A / A的发生率最高，分别为19.2%和17.7%，HPA-3 A / A、HPA-4 b/b和HPA-5的发生率最低，各为0.8%。B血型中HPA-5 B / B和HPA-3 B / B发生率最高，分别为20.0%和16.7%，HPA-1 B / B和HPA-4 a/ B发生率最低，各为5.0%，而HPA-1 a/a、HPA-2 B / B、HPA-3 B / B、HPA-4 a/ B和HPA-5 B / B发生率最高，各为20.0%。O型血HPA +基因型最高为19.7% (HPA-5 b/b)、16.5% (HPA-4 a/a)和13.7% (HPA-3 b/b)，最低为7.9% (HPA-1 a/b)，而O型血HPA-3 b/b和HPA-5 b/b最高(各20.0%)，HPA-1 a/a和a/b、HPA-2 a/b和b/b、HPA-4 a/b和b/b最低(各10.0%)。结论:A血型的HPA频率最高。B型血中HPA-5 B / B和HPA-3 B / B频率最高，HPA-1 a/a、HPA-2 B / B、HPA-3 B / B、HPA-4 a/ B和HPA-5 B / B频率最高。O型血HPA基因型最高(HPA-5 b/b)、(HPA-4 a/a)和(HPA-3 b/b)，最低(HPA-1 a/b)， O型血HPA-3 b/b和HPA-5 b/b最高，HPA-1 a/a和a/b、HPA-2 a/b和b/b、HPA-4 a/b和b/b最低。
{"title":"Assessment of Gene Frequencies of Human Platelet Alloantigens in Rivers-State, Nigeria Based on ABO/Rhesus Blood Groups Distribution","authors":"J. E. Wenah-Emmanuel, E. Eze, E. O. Nwachuku, E. Wenah, Z. Jeremiah","doi":"10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330152","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330152","url":null,"abstract":"Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the Gene Frequencies of Human Platelet Alloantigens in Rivers-State, Nigeria based on ABO/Rhesus blood groups distribution Study Design: A randomized controlled trial. Place and Duration of Study: Rivers State University Medical Centre, Port Harcourt, Safety Molecular Pathology Laboratory, Enugu State, Justcare clinical laboratory Port Harcourt Rivers State and University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, between October 2019 and March 2020. Methodology: The subjects consisted of apparently healthy individuals who were of Rivers State origin totaling 104 persons aged 17 to 42 years. They were under-graduate and post graduate students of Rivers State University of Port Harcourt. Five major ethnic groups were considered which included Ikwerre, Ogoni, Ijaw, Etche and Ogba. Their demographic information was collected using a sample register and a questionnaire. Samples were collected from the antecubital vein. 10ml of blood was collected, 5ml was transferred into EDTA sample bottle (Ethylene diamine tetracetic acid) while 2ml was dispensed into plain bottle and labeled accordingly. Serological testing Original Research Article Wenah-Emmanuel et al.; IBRR, 12(3): 23-31, 2021; Article no.IBRR.68552 24 including HIV (RVS) screening, HBsag, HCV and VDRL were all as part of the inclusion criteria immediately after samples were collected. The remaining sample was analyzed using genotyping of Human Platelet Antigens by High Resolution Melting Curve Analysis Polymerase Chain Reaction (HRM-PCR), while tile method also known as forward/cell grouping method which is based on haem-agglutination reaction was used for ABO/Rh blood grouping. The melt curve analysis was done using the MicPCR software while the frequency analysis was done using Number Cruncher Statistical Software (NCSS) Version 13. GraphPad Prism Version 8.0.2 was used to determine the statistical significance between the various HPA genotypes and the ethnic groups and p-values of < 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant. Results were presented in percentages, mean+/standard deviation and in tables Results: The results showed that the A blood group had highest frequencies of 19.2% and 17.7% for HPA-5 b/b and HPA-4 a/a, while the least was 0.8% each for HPA-3 a/a, HPA-4 b/b and HPA-5. For blood group B, the highest were 20.0% (HPA-5 b/b) and 16.7% (HPA-3 b/b), and the least were 5.0% each for HPA-1 b/b and HPA-4 a/b, while blood group B had highest frequencies for HPA-1 a/a, HPA-2 b/b, HPA-3 b/b, HPA-4 a/b and HPA-5 b/b (20.0% each). The blood group O + HPA gene patterns had their highest values at 19.7% (HPA-5 b/b), 16.5% (HPA-4 a/a) and 13.7% (HPA-3 b/b) and the least was 7.9% (HPA-1 a/b), while for the blood group O , the highest was observed for HPA-3 b/b and HPA-5 b/b (20.0% each) and the least for HPA-1 a/a and a/b, HPA-2 a/b and b/b, and HPA-4 a/b and b/b (10.0% each). Conclusion: Based on the results, we conclude that A blood group had ","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83823762","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-15DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330151
R. Setia, Mitu Dogra, A. Handoo, Gokhula Prasath Thangavel, R. Yadav, P. Barman, R. Kapoor, A. Rahman
DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/v12i330151 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Juan Carlos Troiano, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina. (2) Dr. Dharmesh Chandra Sharma, J. A. Groups of Hospital and G. R. Medical College, India, (3) Dr. Armel Hervé Nwabo Kamdje, University of Ngaoundere, Cameroon. Reviewers: (1) Suman Pal, University of New Mexico, USA. (2) Kindu Alem, Woldia University, Ethiopia. (3) Rachid Ait Addi, Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco. (4) Rizka Ayu Setyani, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/67572
DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/v12i330151编辑:(1)Juan Carlos Troiano博士，阿根廷布宜诺斯艾利斯大学。(2) Dharmesh Chandra Sharma博士，J. A. Groups of Hospital and G. R. Medical College，印度;(3)Armel herv Nwabo Kamdje博士，喀麦隆恩oundere大学。审稿人:(1)Suman Pal，美国新墨西哥大学。(2)埃塞俄比亚沃尔迪亚大学Kindu Alem;(3)摩洛哥Cadi Ayyad大学Rachid Ait Addi。(4) Rizka Ayu Setyani, Sebelas市场大学，印度尼西亚。完整的同行评议历史:http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/67572
{"title":"Performance Evaluation: Four Chemiluminescent SARS-Cov-2 Immunoassays and Rapid-Card Test in Mild Disease and Seroprevalence of SARS CoV-2 in Frontline Healthcare Workers","authors":"R. Setia, Mitu Dogra, A. Handoo, Gokhula Prasath Thangavel, R. Yadav, P. Barman, R. Kapoor, A. Rahman","doi":"10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330151","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330151","url":null,"abstract":"DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/v12i330151 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Juan Carlos Troiano, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina. (2) Dr. Dharmesh Chandra Sharma, J. A. Groups of Hospital and G. R. Medical College, India, (3) Dr. Armel Hervé Nwabo Kamdje, University of Ngaoundere, Cameroon. Reviewers: (1) Suman Pal, University of New Mexico, USA. (2) Kindu Alem, Woldia University, Ethiopia. (3) Rachid Ait Addi, Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco. (4) Rizka Ayu Setyani, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/67572","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82590567","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-10DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330150
Neelum Mansoor, N. Jabbar, Hamza Khan, Ameerah Shaikh, S. Jamal
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) in pediatric age is rare in the literature. It is a common disease of older adults, characterized by clonal proliferation and progressive accumulation of monoclonal B-cell lymphocytes. The diagnosis is established by immunophenotyping and prognosis is defined by staging system (Rai and Binet), as well as by several biological and genetic markers. We report a case of CLL diagnosed in an adolescent girl presented at 16 years of age. The case is being reported to improve awareness regarding this rare entity in children. Case Presentation: A 16 year old female presented with fever, weight loss and cervical lymphadenopathy. After baseline workup, lymph node biopsy, bone marrow biopsy along with immunohistochemistry and flowcytometry on peripheral blood was performed to establish the diagnosis. The clinico-pathologic features including extensive immunophenotyping were consistent with CLL. Discussion: Management guidelines for older adults are very well established but no standardized protocol exists for pediatric age group. We offered her Fludarabine and Cyclophosphamide as first line regimen and she responded well and achieved remission after four cycles. Unfortunately disease relapsed within two years. At this time, determination of optimum therapeutic protocol was a unique challenge as hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) was not available at our institute. Conclusion: CLL is an extremely rare malignancy in childhood and adolescence. Therefore age specific treatment protocols are not established. Reporting this case will help in eliciting the high index of suspicion among pathologists and oncologists for this exceptionally unusual and life threatening disease so that delays can be avoided.
{"title":"Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia in an Adolescent Girl: A Case Report and Clinico-Pathologic Review","authors":"Neelum Mansoor, N. Jabbar, Hamza Khan, Ameerah Shaikh, S. Jamal","doi":"10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330150","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I330150","url":null,"abstract":"Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) in pediatric age is rare in the literature. It is a common disease of older adults, characterized by clonal proliferation and progressive accumulation of monoclonal B-cell lymphocytes. The diagnosis is established by immunophenotyping and prognosis is defined by staging system (Rai and Binet), as well as by several biological and genetic markers. We report a case of CLL diagnosed in an adolescent girl presented at 16 years of age. The case is being reported to improve awareness regarding this rare entity in children. \u0000Case Presentation: A 16 year old female presented with fever, weight loss and cervical lymphadenopathy. After baseline workup, lymph node biopsy, bone marrow biopsy along with immunohistochemistry and flowcytometry on peripheral blood was performed to establish the diagnosis. The clinico-pathologic features including extensive immunophenotyping were consistent with CLL. \u0000Discussion: Management guidelines for older adults are very well established but no standardized protocol exists for pediatric age group. We offered her Fludarabine and Cyclophosphamide as first line regimen and she responded well and achieved remission after four cycles. Unfortunately disease relapsed within two years. At this time, determination of optimum therapeutic protocol was a unique challenge as hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) was not available at our institute. \u0000Conclusion: CLL is an extremely rare malignancy in childhood and adolescence. Therefore age specific treatment protocols are not established. Reporting this case will help in eliciting the high index of suspicion among pathologists and oncologists for this exceptionally unusual and life threatening disease so that delays can be avoided.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86960997","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-06DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I230149
Agbugba N. Agnes, Ohaeri O. Christopher, Ijioma N. Solomon, Robert Ikechukwu Uroko, Achi K. Ngozi, Nwaogazi N. Edith
Aim: In this study, the haematology, serum antioxidant enzymes, and uric acid concentrations in prostatic disease patients attending the Nephrology Department of Abia State University Teaching Hospital, Aba were evaluated. Methodology: A total of one hundred and ten (110) adult males (aged 40-80 years) comprising of sixty (60) prostatic disease patients and 50 normal subjects were recruited. The prostatic disease patients comprised of 30 prostatitis, 20 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), and 10 prostate cancer patients. Haematological parameters, antioxidant enzyme levels, and uric acid concentration were Original Research Article Agnes et al.; IBRR, 12(2): 31-38, 2021; Article no.IBRR.61400 32 determined on blood samples collected from the subjects between January 2017 and December 2019. Results: Results obtained following analysis indicated a significant fall in red blood cell count, haematocrit levels and haemoglobin concentrations in all the prostatic disease patients when compared with control subjects (p<0.05) but no significant difference was observed between the values of these parameters in the three categories of patients studied (p>0.05). Leukocyte and lymphocyte counts in the patients also did not significantly differ from those of the control subjects (p>0.05) but platelets counts were significantly lower (p<0.05). Significant elevations were observed in monocytes and granulocytes counts of prostatitis and prostate cancer patients (p<0.05). Serum antioxidant enzymes activities including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were lower in the prostatic disease patients than in the control (p<0.05) with SOD and GPx levels being lowest in prostatitis and prostate cancer patients respectively while serum uric acid concentration was only higher than control in the prostatitis patients (p<0.05). Conclusion: We, therefore, conclude that complications and deaths due to prostatic diseases may be due to the systemic effects of anaemia and fall in the body’s antioxidant defense line accompanying the conditions.
目的:对阿巴州立大学附属医院肾内科前列腺疾病患者的血液学、血清抗氧化酶和尿酸水平进行评价。方法:共招募110名成年男性(40-80岁)，其中60名前列腺疾病患者和50名正常受试者。其中前列腺炎30例，良性前列腺增生(BPH) 20例，前列腺癌10例。血液学参数、抗氧化酶水平和尿酸浓度分别为Original Research Article Agnes et al;中国生物医学工程学报，12(2):31-38,2021;文章no.IBRR。在2017年1月至2019年12月期间从受试者身上采集的血液样本中确定了61400 32。结果:分析结果显示，与对照组相比，所有前列腺疾病患者的红细胞计数、红细胞压积水平和血红蛋白浓度均显著下降(p0.05)。患者白细胞和淋巴细胞计数与对照组比较差异无统计学意义(p>0.05)，但血小板计数明显低于对照组(p<0.05)。前列腺炎、前列腺癌患者单核细胞、粒细胞计数明显升高(p<0.05)。前列腺疾病患者血清超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GPx)活性低于对照组(p<0.05)，前列腺炎和前列腺癌患者血清SOD和GPx水平最低，而前列腺炎患者血清尿酸浓度仅高于对照组(p<0.05)。因此，我们得出结论，前列腺疾病的并发症和死亡可能是由于贫血的全身性影响以及伴随疾病的身体抗氧化防线的下降。
{"title":"Serum Antioxidant Enzymes, Haematological Values and Uric Acid Concentrations in Prostatic Disease Patients: An Investigative Study","authors":"Agbugba N. Agnes, Ohaeri O. Christopher, Ijioma N. Solomon, Robert Ikechukwu Uroko, Achi K. Ngozi, Nwaogazi N. Edith","doi":"10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I230149","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I230149","url":null,"abstract":"Aim: In this study, the haematology, serum antioxidant enzymes, and uric acid concentrations in prostatic disease patients attending the Nephrology Department of Abia State University Teaching Hospital, Aba were evaluated. Methodology: A total of one hundred and ten (110) adult males (aged 40-80 years) comprising of sixty (60) prostatic disease patients and 50 normal subjects were recruited. The prostatic disease patients comprised of 30 prostatitis, 20 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), and 10 prostate cancer patients. Haematological parameters, antioxidant enzyme levels, and uric acid concentration were Original Research Article Agnes et al.; IBRR, 12(2): 31-38, 2021; Article no.IBRR.61400 32 determined on blood samples collected from the subjects between January 2017 and December 2019. Results: Results obtained following analysis indicated a significant fall in red blood cell count, haematocrit levels and haemoglobin concentrations in all the prostatic disease patients when compared with control subjects (p<0.05) but no significant difference was observed between the values of these parameters in the three categories of patients studied (p>0.05). Leukocyte and lymphocyte counts in the patients also did not significantly differ from those of the control subjects (p>0.05) but platelets counts were significantly lower (p<0.05). Significant elevations were observed in monocytes and granulocytes counts of prostatitis and prostate cancer patients (p<0.05). Serum antioxidant enzymes activities including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were lower in the prostatic disease patients than in the control (p<0.05) with SOD and GPx levels being lowest in prostatitis and prostate cancer patients respectively while serum uric acid concentration was only higher than control in the prostatitis patients (p<0.05). Conclusion: We, therefore, conclude that complications and deaths due to prostatic diseases may be due to the systemic effects of anaemia and fall in the body’s antioxidant defense line accompanying the conditions.","PeriodicalId":13659,"journal":{"name":"International Blood Research & Reviews","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84851582","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-04-24DOI: 10.9734/IBRR/2021/V12I230148
F. E. Siagian, L. S. Sunarti
Introduction: So far, study on medical student’s knowledge regarding human normal flora is not available in the internet. Normal flora is initially beneficial for their host, but what was once part of the normal flora can later become dangerous to their host, e.g become the agent of endogenous disease. The knowledge regarding normal flora is important for medical students, because it related with many aspects of their recent and future education and trainings, especially in the clinical phase. The aim of this simple cross sectional, questionnaire based study is to measure the level of knowledge regarding normal flora. Study Design: Cross sectional, electronic questionnaire-based survey Place and Duration of Study: Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia and conducted for 1 month (March 2021). Short Research Article Siagian and Sunarti; IBRR, 12(2): 24-30, 2021; Article no.IBRR.67884 25 Methodology: The questionnaire is divided into two parts, the demographic section and the knowledge section that consist 20 question regarding normal flora. By using popular social media, WhatsAppTM, survey conducted to all of our medical students. Results: 628 students responded, and they were representing the class of 2014-2020, 190 male students and 438 females with mean age 20.16 years old (min. 16 and max 25). The result showed us that the level of knowledge is good and but the level of understanding regarding normal flora also gets better as they become senior students. Conclusion: The level of knowledge of our students regarding normal flora is good, although it still needs to be improved continuously.
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