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Phylogenetic and kinematic constraints on avian flight signals 鸟类飞行信号的系统发育和运动学约束
Pub Date : 2019-09-18 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1083
Karl S. Berg, S. Delgado, A. Mata-Betancourt
Many birds vocalize in flight. Because wingbeat and respiratory cycles are often linked in flying vertebrates, birds in these cases must satisfy the respiratory demands of vocal production within the physiological limits imposed by flight. Using acoustic triangulation and high-speed video, we found that avian vocal production in flight exhibits a largely phasic and kinematic relationship with the power stroke. However, the sample of species showed considerable flexibility, especially those from lineages known for vocal plasticity (songbirds, parrots and hummingbirds), prompting a broader phylogenetic analysis. We thus collected data from 150 species across 12 avian orders and examined the links between wingbeat period, flight call duration and body mass. Overall, shorter wingbeat periods, controlling for ancestry and body mass, were correlated with shorter flight call durations. However, species from vocal learner lineages produced flight signals that, on average, exceeded multiple phases of their wingbeat cycle, while vocal non-learners had signal periods that were, on average, closer to the duration of their power stroke. These results raise an interesting question: is partial emancipation from respiratory constraints a necessary step in the evolution of vocal learning or an epiphenomenon? Our current study cannot provide the answer, but it does suggest several avenues for future research.
许多鸟在飞行时会发出声音。因为在飞行的脊椎动物中,翅膀拍击和呼吸循环经常是联系在一起的,在这种情况下,鸟类必须在飞行所施加的生理限制内满足发声的呼吸需求。利用声学三角测量和高速视频,我们发现鸟类在飞行中的声音产生与力量冲程有很大的相位和运动学关系。然而,物种样本显示出相当大的灵活性,尤其是那些以声音可塑性著称的谱系(鸣禽、鹦鹉和蜂鸟),这促使了更广泛的系统发育分析。因此,我们收集了12个鸟类目的150个物种的数据,并研究了翅拍期、飞行呼叫时间和体重之间的关系。总的来说,在控制血统和体重的情况下,较短的拍翼时间与较短的飞行呼叫持续时间相关。然而,来自发声学习者谱系的物种产生的飞行信号平均超过了它们拍翼周期的多个阶段,而发声非学习者的信号周期平均更接近它们的力量拍击的持续时间。这些结果提出了一个有趣的问题:从呼吸限制中部分解放是声乐学习进化的必要步骤还是一种附带现象?我们目前的研究无法提供答案,但它确实为未来的研究提供了一些途径。
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引用次数: 6
Social buffering of stress in a group-living fish 群居鱼对压力的社会缓冲
Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1626
B. Culbert, K. Gilmour, S. Balshine
Living in groups affords individuals many benefits, including the opportunity to reduce stress. In mammals, such ‘social buffering’ of stress is mediated by affiliative relationships and production of the neuropeptide oxytocin, but whether these mechanisms facilitate social buffering across vertebrates remains an open question. Therefore, we evaluated whether the social environment influenced the behavioural and physiological recovery from an acute stressor in a group-living cichlid, Neolamprologus pulcher. Individual fish that recovered with their social group displayed lower cortisol levels than individuals that recovered alone. This social buffering of the stress response was associated with a tendency towards lower transcript abundance of arginine vasotocin and isotocin in the preoptic area of the brain, suggesting reduced neural activation of the stress axis. Individuals that recovered with their social group quickly resumed normal behaviour but received fewer affiliative acts following the stressor. Further experiments revealed similar cortisol levels between individuals that recovered in visual contact with their own social group and those in visual contact with a novel but non-aggressive social group. Collectively, our results suggest that affiliation and familiarity per se do not mediate social buffering in this group-living cichlid, and the behavioural and physiological mechanisms responsible for social buffering may vary across vertebrates.
集体生活给个人带来很多好处,包括减少压力的机会。在哺乳动物中,这种压力的“社会缓冲”是由亲和关系和神经肽催产素的产生介导的,但这些机制是否促进了脊椎动物的社会缓冲仍然是一个悬而未决的问题。因此,我们评估了社会环境是否会影响群居稚鱼(Neolamprologus pulcher)在急性应激源后的行为和生理恢复。与社会群体一起康复的个体比单独康复的个体显示出更低的皮质醇水平。这种应激反应的社会缓冲与大脑视前区精氨酸血管催产素和异肽催产素转录丰度较低的趋势有关,表明应激轴的神经激活减少。与他们的社会群体恢复的个体很快恢复了正常的行为,但在压力源后得到的附属行为较少。进一步的实验表明,在与自己的社会群体进行视觉接触后恢复的个体与与一个新的但没有攻击性的社会群体进行视觉接触的个体之间的皮质醇水平相似。总的来说,我们的研究结果表明,亲缘关系和熟悉程度本身并不能调节这种群体生活的慈鲷的社会缓冲,负责社会缓冲的行为和生理机制可能因脊椎动物而异。
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引用次数: 32
Valence of social information is encoded in different subpopulations of mushroom body Kenyon cells in the honeybee brain 社会信息的价态编码在蜜蜂大脑中不同的蘑菇体凯尼恩细胞亚群中
Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.0901
Ian M. Traniello, Zhenqing Chen, Vikram A. Bagchi, G. Robinson
Over 600 Myr of evolutionary divergence between vertebrates and invertebrates is associated with considerable neuroanatomical variation both across and within these lineages. By contrast, valence encoding is an important behavioural trait that is evolutionarily conserved across vertebrates and invertebrates, and enables individuals to distinguish between positive (potentially beneficial) and negative (potentially harmful) situations. We tested the hypothesis that social interactions of positive and negative valence are modularly encoded in the honeybee brain (i.e. encoded in different cellular subpopulations) as in vertebrate brains. In vertebrates, neural activation patterns are distributed across distinct parts of the brain, suggesting that discrete circuits encode positive or negative stimuli. Evidence for this hypothesis would suggest a deep homology of neural organization between insects and vertebrates for valence encoding, despite vastly different brain sizes. Alternatively, overlapping localization of valenced social information in the brain would imply a ‘re-use' of circuitry in response to positive and negative social contexts, potentially to overcome the energetic constraints of a tiny brain. We used immediate early gene expression to map positively and negatively valenced social interactions in the brain of the western honeybee Apis mellifera. We found that the valence of a social signal is represented by distinct anatomical subregions of the mushroom bodies, an invertebrate sensory neuropil associated with social behaviour, multimodal sensory integration, learning and memory. Our results suggest that the modularization of valenced social information in the brain is a fundamental property of neuroanatomical organization.
脊椎动物和无脊椎动物之间超过600兆尔的进化差异与这些谱系之间和内部的相当大的神经解剖学变异有关。相比之下,效价编码是一种重要的行为特征,在脊椎动物和无脊椎动物中都是进化保守的,它使个体能够区分积极(潜在有益)和消极(潜在有害)的情况。我们测试了一个假设,即积极和消极的社会互动在蜜蜂的大脑中是模块化编码的(即在不同的细胞亚群中编码),就像在脊椎动物的大脑中一样。在脊椎动物中,神经激活模式分布在大脑的不同部分,这表明离散的回路编码积极或消极的刺激。这一假设的证据表明,昆虫和脊椎动物之间的神经组织在价编码方面有着深刻的同源性,尽管大脑大小大不相同。另外,大脑中有价值的社会信息的重叠定位可能意味着回路在积极和消极的社会背景下的“再利用”,有可能克服微小大脑的能量限制。我们使用即时早期基因表达来绘制西方蜜蜂大脑中积极和消极的社会互动。我们发现社会信号的效价由蘑菇体的不同解剖亚区表示,蘑菇体是一种与社会行为、多模态感觉整合、学习和记忆相关的无脊椎感觉神经。我们的研究结果表明,大脑中有价值的社会信息的模块化是神经解剖组织的基本特性。
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引用次数: 15
Manipulation of natal host modifies adult reproductive behaviour in the butterfly Heliconius charithonia 对出生寄主的操纵改变了蝴蝶Heliconius charithonia成虫的生殖行为
Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1225
D. Kemp
Advances in understanding non-genetic inheritance have prompted broader interest in environmental effects. One way in which such effects may influence adaptation is via the transmission of acquired habitat biases. Here I explore how natal experience influences adult host orientation in the oligophagous passion vine butterfly Heliconius charithonia. As an exemplar of the ‘pupal mating' system, this species poses novelty among diurnal Lepidoptera for the extent to which male as well as female reproductive behaviours are guided by olfactory host cues. I sampled wild adult females breeding exclusively upon Passiflora incarnata, assigned their offspring to develop either upon this species or its local alternative Passiflora suberosa, and then assessed the behaviour of F1 adults in a large rainforest enclosure. Despite the fact that juvenile performance was superior upon P. incarnata, females oviposited preferentially upon their assigned natal species. Mate-seeking males also indicated a bias for the proximity of their natal host, and there was evidence for assortative mating based upon host treatment, although these data are less robust. This study is, to my knowledge, the first to support Hopkins' hostplant principle in butterflies, and points to inducible host preferences capable of reinforcing ecological segregation and ultimately accelerating evolutionary divergence in sympatry.
在了解非基因遗传方面的进展促使人们对环境影响产生了更广泛的兴趣。这种影响可能影响适应的一种方式是通过后天生境偏见的传播。在这里,我探讨了出生经历如何影响寡食西番莲蝴蝶的成虫寄主取向。作为“蛹交配”系统的典范,该物种在昼夜活动的鳞翅目中具有新颖性,因为雄性和雌性的生殖行为都是由嗅觉宿主提示引导的。我选取了仅以西番莲为食的野生成年雌性,将它们的后代分配给该物种或其当地替代品西番莲,然后评估了大型雨林圈地中F1成年的行为。尽管幼鱼的产卵表现优于红腹虫,但雌鱼更倾向于产卵于它们指定的出生物种。寻求配偶的雄性也表现出对其出生宿主的接近性的偏见,并且有证据表明基于宿主治疗的选型交配,尽管这些数据不太可靠。据我所知,这项研究是第一个在蝴蝶中支持霍普金斯寄主植物原理的研究,并指出诱导寄主偏好能够加强生态隔离,并最终加速同属生物的进化分化。
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引用次数: 5
Loss of olfaction in sea snakes provides new perspectives on the aquatic adaptation of amniotes 海蛇嗅觉的丧失为研究羊膜动物的水生适应性提供了新的视角
Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1828
T. Kishida, Yasuhiro Go, Shoji Tatsumoto, Kaori Tatsumi, Shigehiro Kuraku, M. Toda
Marine amniotes, a polyphyletic group, provide an excellent opportunity for studying convergent evolution. Their sense of smell tends to degenerate, but this process has not been explored by comparing fully aquatic species with their amphibious relatives in an evolutionary context. Here, we sequenced the genomes of fully aquatic and amphibious sea snakes and identified repertoires of chemosensory receptor genes involved in olfaction. Snakes possess large numbers of the olfactory receptor (OR) genes and the type-2 vomeronasal receptor (V2R) genes, and expression profiling in the olfactory tissues suggests that snakes use the ORs in the main olfactory system (MOS) and the V2Rs in the vomeronasal system (VNS). The number of OR genes has decreased in sea snakes, and fully aquatic species lost MOS which is responsible for detecting airborne odours. By contrast, sea snakes including fully aquatic species retain a number of V2R genes and a well-developed VNS for smelling underwater. This study suggests that the sense of smell also degenerated in sea snakes, particularly in fully aquatic species, but their residual olfactory capability is distinct from that of other fully aquatic amniotes. Amphibious species show an intermediate status between terrestrial and fully aquatic snakes, implying their importance in understanding the process of aquatic adaptation.
海洋羊膜动物是一种多物种类群,为研究趋同进化提供了极好的机会。它们的嗅觉倾向于退化,但这一过程尚未通过将完全水生物种与它们的两栖亲戚在进化背景下进行比较来探索。在这里,我们对全水生和两栖海蛇的基因组进行了测序,并确定了与嗅觉有关的化学感觉受体基因。蛇具有大量的嗅觉受体(OR)基因和2型犁头鼻受体(V2R)基因,在嗅觉组织中的表达谱表明蛇在主嗅觉系统(MOS)中使用ORs基因,在犁头鼻系统(VNS)中使用V2Rs基因。海蛇的OR基因数量已经减少,完全水生的物种失去了负责探测空气中气味的MOS。相比之下,包括完全水生物种在内的海蛇保留了许多V2R基因和发达的VNS,用于在水下嗅觉。这项研究表明,海蛇的嗅觉也退化了,特别是在完全水生的物种中,但它们的残余嗅觉能力与其他完全水生的羊膜动物不同。两栖类蛇介于陆生蛇和完全水生蛇之间,这意味着它们在理解水生适应过程中的重要性。
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引用次数: 21
Paternal chronic folate supplementation induced the transgenerational inheritance of acquired developmental and metabolic changes in chickens 父本长期补充叶酸可诱导鸡获得性发育和代谢变化的跨代遗传
Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1653
Shengru Wu, W. Guo, Xinyi Li, Yanli Liu, Yulong Li, Xinyu Lei, Junhu Yao, Xiaojun Yang
Increasing evidence indicates that paternal diet can result in metabolic changes in offspring, but the definite mechanism remains unclear in birds. Here, we fed breeder cocks five different diets containing 0, 0.25, 1.25, 2.50 and 5.00 mg kg−1 folate throughout life. Paternal folate supplementation (FS) was beneficial to the growth and organ development of broiler offspring. Most importantly, the lipid and glucose metabolism of breeder cocks and broiler offspring were affected by paternal FS, according to biochemical and metabolomic analyses. We further employed global analyses of hepatic and spermatozoal messenger RNA (mRNA), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and micro RNA (miRNA). Some key genes involved in the glycolysis or gluconeogenesis pathway and the PPAR signalling pathway, including PEPCK, ANGPTL4 and THRSP, were regulated by differentially expressed hepatic and spermatozoal miRNAs and lncRNAs in breeder cocks and broiler offspring. Moreover, the expression of ANGPTL4 could also be regulated by differentially expressed miRNAs and lncRNAs in spermatozoa via competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) mechanisms. Overall, this model suggests that paternal folate could transgenerationally regulate lipid and glucose metabolism in broiler offspring and the epigenetic transmission may involve altered spermatozoal miRNAs and lncRNAs.
越来越多的证据表明,父亲的饮食可以导致后代的代谢变化,但在鸟类中明确的机制尚不清楚。在本研究中,我们终生给种鸡饲喂5种不同的饲粮,分别含有0、0.25、1.25、2.50和5.00 mg kg - 1叶酸。父本补充叶酸(FS)有利于肉鸡子代的生长和器官发育。最重要的是,根据生化和代谢组学分析,父亲FS对种鸡和肉鸡后代的脂质和葡萄糖代谢有影响。我们进一步对肝脏和精子的信使RNA (mRNA)、长链非编码RNA (lncRNA)和微RNA (miRNA)进行了全局分析。在种鸡和肉鸡后代中,参与糖酵解或糖异生途径和PPAR信号通路的关键基因,包括PEPCK、ANGPTL4和THRSP,受到肝脏和精子mirna和lncrna差异表达的调控。此外,ANGPTL4的表达也可以通过竞争内源性RNA (ceRNA)机制受到精子中差异表达的mirna和lncrna的调控。综上所述,该模型表明,父本叶酸可以跨代调节肉鸡后代的脂质和糖代谢,其表观遗传传递可能涉及精子mirna和lncrna的改变。
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引用次数: 20
Spatio-temporal ecological niche modelling of multigenerational insect migrations 昆虫多代迁徙的时空生态位模拟
Pub Date : 2019-09-04 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1583
M. Menchetti, M. Guéguen, Gerard Talavera
Modelling ecological niches of migratory animals requires incorporating a temporal dimension, in addition to space. Here, we introduce an approach to model multigenerational migratory insects using time-partitioned environmental variables (by months and years) and time- and behaviour-partitioned records (breeding records to model reproductive habitat). We apply this methodology to modelling the Palearctic-African migratory cycle of the Painted Lady butterfly (Vanessa cardui), based on data encompassing 36 years (646 breeding sites from 30 countries). Each breeding record is linked to a particular time (month and year), and the associated values of the bioclimatic variables are used for an ensemble modelling strategy, to finally obtain monthly projections. The results show obligated movements, mostly latitudinal, for the species' successive generations across the overall range, and only scattered locations show high probabilities of reproduction year-round. The southernmost reproductive areas estimated for the Palearctic-African migratory pool reach equatorial latitudes from December to February. We thus propose a potential distribution for the winter ‘missing generations' that would expand the V. cardui migration cycle to encompass about 15 000 km in latitude, from northernmost Europe to equatorial Africa. In summer, Europe represents the major temporary resource for V. cardui, while January and February show the lowest overall suitability values, and they are potentially the most vulnerable period for the species to suffer yearly bottlenecks. In summary, we demonstrate the potential of the proposed niche modelling strategy to investigate migratory movements of insects.
对迁徙动物的生态位进行建模除了需要考虑空间之外,还需要考虑时间维度。在这里,我们介绍了一种方法来模拟多代迁徙昆虫使用时间划分的环境变量(按月和年)和时间和行为划分的记录(繁殖记录来模拟生殖栖息地)。基于36年的数据(来自30个国家的646个繁殖地),我们将这种方法应用于绘制彩蝶(Vanessa cardui)的古北-非洲迁徙周期模型。每个繁殖记录都与特定的时间(月份和年份)相关联,生物气候变量的相关值用于集合建模策略,最终获得月度预测。结果显示,在整个范围内,物种的后代有义务迁移,主要是纬度迁移,只有分散的地方显示出全年繁殖的高概率。据估计,古北非洲候鸟的最南端繁殖区从12月到次年2月到达赤道纬度。因此,我们提出了冬季“失踪世代”的潜在分布,这将扩大V. cardui的迁徙周期,从欧洲最北端到赤道非洲,覆盖纬度约15,000公里。在夏季,欧洲是卡杜氏弧菌的主要临时资源,而1月和2月的总体适宜性值最低,可能是该物种遭受年度瓶颈的最脆弱时期。总之,我们证明了所提出的生态位建模策略在研究昆虫迁徙运动方面的潜力。
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引用次数: 28
Experimentally disentangling intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of natal dispersal in a nocturnal raptor 通过实验解开夜间猛禽出生分散的内在和外在驱动因素
Pub Date : 2019-09-04 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1537
J. Fattebert, M. Perrig, B. Naef-Daenzer, M. Grüebler
Equivocal knowledge of the phase-specific drivers of natal dispersal remains a major deficit in understanding causes and consequences of dispersal and thus, spatial dynamics within and between populations. We performed a field experiment combining partial cross-fostering of nestlings and nestling food supplementation in little owls (Athene noctua). This approach disentangled the effect of nestling origin from the effect of the rearing environment on dispersal behaviour, while simultaneously investigating the effect of food availability in the rearing environment. We radio-tracked fledglings to quantify the timing of pre-emigration forays and emigration, foray and transfer duration, and the dispersal distances. Dispersal characteristics of the pre-emigration phase were affected by the rearing environment rather than by the origin of nestlings. In food-poor habitats, supplemented individuals emigrated later than unsupplemented individuals. By contrast, transfer duration and distance were influenced by the birds' origin rather than by their rearing environment. We found no correlation between timing of emigration and transfer duration or distance. We conclude that food supply to the nestlings and other characteristics of the rearing environment modulate the timing of emigration, while innate traits associated with the nestling origin affect the transfer phases after emigration. The dispersal behaviours of juveniles prior and after emigration, therefore, were related to different determinants, and are suggested to form different life-history traits.
在理解迁徙的原因和后果以及种群内部和种群之间的空间动态方面,对出生迁徙的特定阶段驱动因素的模棱两可的认识仍然是一个主要缺陷。对小猫头鹰(Athene noctua)进行了雏鸟部分交叉饲养和雏鸟食物补充相结合的野外试验。该方法将雏鸟起源的影响与饲养环境对扩散行为的影响分开,同时研究了饲养环境中食物供应的影响。我们对雏鸟进行无线电跟踪,以量化迁徙前突袭和迁徙的时间、突袭和转移的持续时间以及分散距离。迁徙前阶段的扩散特征受饲养环境的影响,而不受雏鸟起源的影响。在食物贫乏的生境中,补充个体比未补充个体迁移得晚。相比之下,迁移时间和距离受鸟类来源的影响,而不受饲养环境的影响。我们发现移民时间与迁移时间或距离之间没有相关性。我们得出结论,雏鸟的食物供应和饲养环境的其他特征调节了迁徙的时间,而与雏鸟起源相关的先天特征影响了迁徙后的迁移阶段。因此,幼鱼迁徙前后的分散行为与不同的决定因素有关,并可能形成不同的生活史特征。
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引用次数: 11
Nutrient scarcity strengthens soil fauna control over leaf litter decomposition in tropical rainforests 营养缺乏加强了热带雨林土壤动物对凋落叶分解的控制
Pub Date : 2019-09-04 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1300
Guille Peguero, J. Sardans, D. Asensio, M. Fernández‐Martínez, A. Gargallo‐Garriga, O. Grau, J. Llusià, O. Margalef, Laura Márquez, R. Ogaya, Ifigenia Urbina, Elodie A. Courtois, C. Stahl, Leandro Van Langenhove, L. Verryckt, Andreas Richter, I. Janssens, J. Peñuelas
Soil fauna is a key control of the decomposition rate of leaf litter, yet its interactions with litter quality and the soil environment remain elusive. We conducted a litter decomposition experiment across different topographic levels within the landscape replicated in two rainforest sites providing natural gradients in soil fertility to test the hypothesis that low nutrient availability in litter and soil increases the strength of fauna control over litter decomposition. We crossed these data with a large dataset of 44 variables characterizing the biotic and abiotic microenvironment of each sampling point and found that microbe-driven carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) losses from leaf litter were 10.1 and 17.9% lower, respectively, in the nutrient-poorest site, but this among-site difference was equalized when meso- and macrofauna had access to the litterbags. Further, on average, soil fauna enhanced the rate of litter decomposition by 22.6%, and this contribution consistently increased as nutrient availability in the microenvironment declined. Our results indicate that nutrient scarcity increases the importance of soil fauna on C and N cycling in tropical rainforests. Further, soil fauna is able to equalize differences in microbial decomposition potential, thus buffering to a remarkable extent nutrient shortages at an ecosystem level.
土壤动物是控制凋落叶分解速率的关键因素,但其与凋落叶质量和土壤环境的相互作用尚不明确。我们在两个热带雨林站点复制了不同地形水平的凋落物分解实验,提供了土壤肥力的自然梯度,以验证凋落物和土壤的低养分有效性增加了动物控制凋落物分解的强度的假设。我们将这些数据与每个采样点的生物和非生物微环境的44个变量的大数据集进行交叉分析,发现微生物驱动的凋落叶碳(C)和氮(N)损失在营养最贫乏的地点分别低10.1和17.9%,但当中、大型动物有机会进入凋落叶袋时,这种差异在地点之间是相等的。土壤动物对凋落物分解的平均贡献率为22.6%,且随着微环境中养分有效性的下降,土壤动物对凋落物分解的贡献率持续增加。研究结果表明,土壤动物对热带雨林碳氮循环的重要性随着养分的缺乏而增加。此外,土壤动物能够平衡微生物分解潜力的差异,从而在生态系统水平上显著缓冲养分短缺。
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引用次数: 15
A sheep in wolf’s clothing: levels of deceit and detection in the evolution of cue-mimicry 披着狼皮的羊:线索模仿进化中的欺骗和探测水平
Pub Date : 2019-09-04 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1425
Shahab Zareyan, S. Otto, C. Hauert
In an evolutionary context, trusted signals or cues provide individuals with the opportunity to manipulate them to their advantage by deceiving others. The deceived can then respond to the deception by either ignoring the signals or cues or evolving means of deception–detection. If the latter happens, it can result in an arms race between deception and detection. Here, we formally analyse these possibilities in the context of cue-mimicry in prey–predator interactions. We demonstrate that two extrinsic parameters control whether and for how long an arms race continues: the benefits of deception, and the cost of ignoring signals and cues and having an indiscriminate response. As long as the cost of new forms of deception is less than its benefits and the cost of new forms of detection is less than the cost of an indiscriminate response, an arms race results in the perpetual evolution of better forms of detection and deception. When novel forms of deception or detection become too costly to evolve, the population settles on a polymorphic equilibrium involving multiple strategies of deception and honesty, and multiple strategies of detection and trust.
在进化的背景下,可信的信号或线索为个体提供了通过欺骗他人来操纵它们的机会。然后,被欺骗的人可以通过忽略信号或线索或进化欺骗检测手段来对欺骗做出反应。如果发生后一种情况,可能会导致欺骗和发现之间的军备竞赛。在这里,我们正式分析这些可能性在线索模仿的背景下,在捕食者相互作用。我们证明了两个外在参数控制着军备竞赛是否持续以及持续多久:欺骗的好处,以及忽视信号和线索并做出不加区分的反应的代价。只要新形式的欺骗的成本低于其收益,新形式的侦查的成本低于不加区分的反应的成本,军备竞赛就会导致更好的侦查和欺骗形式的不断进化。当新形式的欺骗或侦查变得过于昂贵而无法进化时,种群就会在涉及欺骗和诚实的多种策略,以及侦查和信任的多种策略的多态平衡中定居下来。
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引用次数: 2
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