Proceedings of the Royal Society B最新文献_第10页

Resource distribution and internal factors interact to govern movement of a freshwater snail 淡水蜗牛的运动受资源分布和内部因素的影响

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-25 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1610

C. Cloyed, A. Dell

Movement enables mobile organisms to respond to local environmental conditions and is driven by a combination of external and internal factors operating at multiple scales. Here, we explored how resource distribution interacted with the internal state of organisms to drive patterns of movement. Specifically, we tracked snail movements on experimental landscapes where resource (algal biofilm) distribution varied from 0 to 100% coverage and quantified how that movement changed over a 24 h period. Resource distribution strongly affected snail movement. Trajectories were tortuous (i.e. Brownian-like) within resource patches but straighter (i.e. Lévy) in resource-free (bare) patches. The average snail speed was slower in resource patches, where snails spent most of their time. Different patterns of movement between resource and bare patches explained movement at larger spatial scales; movement was ballistic-like Lévy in resource-free landscapes, Lévy in landscapes with intermediate resource coverage and approximated Brownian in landscapes covered in resources. Our temporal analysis revealed that movement patterns changed predictably for snails that satiated their hunger and then performed other behaviours. These changes in movement patterns through time were similar across all treatments that contained resources. Thus, external and internal factors interacted to shape the inherently flexible movement of these snails.

运动使可移动的生物能够对当地环境条件做出反应，并由多种尺度的外部和内部因素共同驱动。在这里，我们探索了资源分配如何与生物体的内部状态相互作用，以驱动运动模式。具体来说，我们跟踪了资源(藻类生物膜)分布从0到100%覆盖的实验景观上蜗牛的运动，并量化了这种运动在24小时内的变化。资源分布强烈影响蜗牛运动。在资源斑块内，轨迹是曲折的(即布朗样)，而在无资源(光秃秃)斑块中，轨迹则是笔直的(即lcv)。在资源斑块中，蜗牛的平均速度较慢，蜗牛在那里度过了大部分时间。资源斑块与光斑之间的不同运动模式解释了更大空间尺度上的运动;在资源无覆盖的景观中，运动表现为弹道型的lcv，在资源覆盖的景观中表现为lcv，在资源覆盖的景观中表现为近似布朗型的lcv。我们的时间分析显示，蜗牛的运动模式发生了可预测的变化，它们满足了饥饿，然后进行其他行为。这些运动模式随时间的变化在所有含有资源的治疗中都是相似的。因此，外部和内部因素相互作用，塑造了这些蜗牛固有的灵活运动。

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引用次数: 12

Ecological constraints associated with genome size across salamander lineages 与蝾螈谱系基因组大小相关的生态约束

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-18 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1780

Gavia Lertzman-Lepofsky, A. Mooers, D. Greenberg

Salamanders have some of the largest, and most variable, genome sizes among the vertebrates. Larger genomes have been associated with larger cell sizes, lower metabolic rates, and longer embryonic and larval durations in many different taxonomic groups. These life-history traits are often important for dictating fitness under different environmental conditions, suggesting that a species' genome size may have the potential to constrain its ecological distribution. We test how genome size varies with the ephemerality of larval habitat across the salamanders, predicting that species with larger genomes will be constrained to more permanent habitats that permit slower development, while species with smaller genomes will be more broadly distributed across the gradient of habitat ephemerality. We found that salamanders with larger genomes are almost exclusively associated with permanent aquatic habitats. In addition, the evolutionary transition rate between permanent and ephemeral larval habitats is much higher in salamander lineages with smaller genome sizes. These patterns suggest that genome size may act as an evolutionary constraint on the ecological habitats of salamanders, restricting those species with large genomes and slower development to habitats with permanent sources of water.

在脊椎动物中，蝾螈的基因组大小是最大的，也是最多变的。在许多不同的分类群体中，更大的基因组与更大的细胞大小、更低的代谢率以及更长的胚胎和幼虫持续时间有关。这些生活史特征对于决定在不同环境条件下的适应性通常很重要，这表明一个物种的基因组大小可能有限制其生态分布的潜力。我们测试了整个蝾螈的基因组大小是如何随着幼虫栖息地的短暂性而变化的，预测基因组较大的物种将被限制在更永久的栖息地，允许更慢的发育，而基因组较小的物种将更广泛地分布在栖息地短暂性的梯度上。我们发现，基因组较大的蝾螈几乎只与永久的水生栖息地有关。此外，在基因组大小较小的蝾螈谱系中，永久和短暂幼虫栖息地之间的进化过渡率要高得多。这些模式表明，基因组大小可能对蝾螈的生态栖息地起着进化限制作用，将那些基因组大、发育较慢的物种限制在有永久水源的栖息地。

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引用次数: 23

Ecological constraints coupled with deep-time habitat dynamics predict the latitudinal diversity gradient in reef fishes 结合深时生境动态的生态约束预测了珊瑚礁鱼类的纬向多样性梯度

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-18 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1506

T. Gaboriau, C. Albouy, Patrice Descombes, D. Mouillot, L. Pellissier, F. Leprieur

We develop a spatially explicit model of diversification based on palaeohabitat to explore the predictions of four major hypotheses potentially explaining the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG), namely, the ‘time-area’, ‘tropical niche conservatism’, ‘ecological limits’ and ‘evolutionary speed’ hypotheses. We compare simulation outputs to observed diversity gradients in the global reef fish fauna. Our simulations show that these hypotheses are non-mutually exclusive and that their relative influence depends on the time scale considered. Simulations suggest that reef habitat dynamics produced the LDG during deep geological time, while ecological constraints shaped the modern LDG, with a strong influence of the reduction in the latitudinal extent of tropical reefs during the Neogene. Overall, this study illustrates how mechanistic models in ecology and evolution can provide a temporal and spatial understanding of the role of speciation, extinction and dispersal in generating biodiversity patterns.

我们建立了一个基于古生境的空间显式多样性模型，探讨了可能解释纬度多样性梯度(LDG)的四种主要假设的预测，即“时空”、“热带生态位保守性”、“生态极限”和“进化速度”假设。我们将模拟结果与观察到的全球珊瑚鱼动物群的多样性梯度进行比较。我们的模拟表明，这些假设不是相互排斥的，它们的相对影响取决于所考虑的时间尺度。模拟结果表明，深地质时期的珊瑚礁生境动态产生了LDG，而现代LDG的形成受生态约束的影响，其中新第三纪热带珊瑚礁纬度范围减小的影响较大。总的来说，这项研究说明了生态学和进化中的机制模型如何能够提供物种形成、灭绝和扩散在产生生物多样性模式中的作用的时间和空间理解。

引用次数: 1

Phylogenetic and kinematic constraints on avian flight signals 鸟类飞行信号的系统发育和运动学约束

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-18 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1083

Karl S. Berg, S. Delgado, A. Mata-Betancourt

Many birds vocalize in flight. Because wingbeat and respiratory cycles are often linked in flying vertebrates, birds in these cases must satisfy the respiratory demands of vocal production within the physiological limits imposed by flight. Using acoustic triangulation and high-speed video, we found that avian vocal production in flight exhibits a largely phasic and kinematic relationship with the power stroke. However, the sample of species showed considerable flexibility, especially those from lineages known for vocal plasticity (songbirds, parrots and hummingbirds), prompting a broader phylogenetic analysis. We thus collected data from 150 species across 12 avian orders and examined the links between wingbeat period, flight call duration and body mass. Overall, shorter wingbeat periods, controlling for ancestry and body mass, were correlated with shorter flight call durations. However, species from vocal learner lineages produced flight signals that, on average, exceeded multiple phases of their wingbeat cycle, while vocal non-learners had signal periods that were, on average, closer to the duration of their power stroke. These results raise an interesting question: is partial emancipation from respiratory constraints a necessary step in the evolution of vocal learning or an epiphenomenon? Our current study cannot provide the answer, but it does suggest several avenues for future research.

许多鸟在飞行时会发出声音。因为在飞行的脊椎动物中，翅膀拍击和呼吸循环经常是联系在一起的，在这种情况下，鸟类必须在飞行所施加的生理限制内满足发声的呼吸需求。利用声学三角测量和高速视频，我们发现鸟类在飞行中的声音产生与力量冲程有很大的相位和运动学关系。然而，物种样本显示出相当大的灵活性，尤其是那些以声音可塑性著称的谱系(鸣禽、鹦鹉和蜂鸟)，这促使了更广泛的系统发育分析。因此，我们收集了12个鸟类目的150个物种的数据，并研究了翅拍期、飞行呼叫时间和体重之间的关系。总的来说，在控制血统和体重的情况下，较短的拍翼时间与较短的飞行呼叫持续时间相关。然而，来自发声学习者谱系的物种产生的飞行信号平均超过了它们拍翼周期的多个阶段，而发声非学习者的信号周期平均更接近它们的力量拍击的持续时间。这些结果提出了一个有趣的问题:从呼吸限制中部分解放是声乐学习进化的必要步骤还是一种附带现象?我们目前的研究无法提供答案，但它确实为未来的研究提供了一些途径。

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引用次数: 6

Social buffering of stress in a group-living fish 群居鱼对压力的社会缓冲

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1626

B. Culbert, K. Gilmour, S. Balshine

Living in groups affords individuals many benefits, including the opportunity to reduce stress. In mammals, such ‘social buffering’ of stress is mediated by affiliative relationships and production of the neuropeptide oxytocin, but whether these mechanisms facilitate social buffering across vertebrates remains an open question. Therefore, we evaluated whether the social environment influenced the behavioural and physiological recovery from an acute stressor in a group-living cichlid, Neolamprologus pulcher. Individual fish that recovered with their social group displayed lower cortisol levels than individuals that recovered alone. This social buffering of the stress response was associated with a tendency towards lower transcript abundance of arginine vasotocin and isotocin in the preoptic area of the brain, suggesting reduced neural activation of the stress axis. Individuals that recovered with their social group quickly resumed normal behaviour but received fewer affiliative acts following the stressor. Further experiments revealed similar cortisol levels between individuals that recovered in visual contact with their own social group and those in visual contact with a novel but non-aggressive social group. Collectively, our results suggest that affiliation and familiarity per se do not mediate social buffering in this group-living cichlid, and the behavioural and physiological mechanisms responsible for social buffering may vary across vertebrates.

集体生活给个人带来很多好处，包括减少压力的机会。在哺乳动物中，这种压力的“社会缓冲”是由亲和关系和神经肽催产素的产生介导的，但这些机制是否促进了脊椎动物的社会缓冲仍然是一个悬而未决的问题。因此，我们评估了社会环境是否会影响群居稚鱼(Neolamprologus pulcher)在急性应激源后的行为和生理恢复。与社会群体一起康复的个体比单独康复的个体显示出更低的皮质醇水平。这种应激反应的社会缓冲与大脑视前区精氨酸血管催产素和异肽催产素转录丰度较低的趋势有关，表明应激轴的神经激活减少。与他们的社会群体恢复的个体很快恢复了正常的行为，但在压力源后得到的附属行为较少。进一步的实验表明，在与自己的社会群体进行视觉接触后恢复的个体与与一个新的但没有攻击性的社会群体进行视觉接触的个体之间的皮质醇水平相似。总的来说，我们的研究结果表明，亲缘关系和熟悉程度本身并不能调节这种群体生活的慈鲷的社会缓冲，负责社会缓冲的行为和生理机制可能因脊椎动物而异。

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引用次数: 32

A Laurasian origin for a pantropical bird radiation is supported by genomic and fossil data (Aves: Coraciiformes). 基因组和化石数据支持泛热带鸟类辐射的劳拉西亚起源（鸟类：冠形目）。

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.0122

Jenna M McCullough, Robert G Moyle, Brian T Smith, Michael J Andersen

The evolution of pantropically distributed clades has puzzled palaeo- and neontologists for decades regarding the different hypotheses about where they originated. In this study, we explored how a pantropical distribution arose in a diverse clade with a rich fossil history: the avian order Coraciiformes. This group has played a central role in the debate of the biogeographical history of Neoaves. However, the order lacked a coherent species tree to inform study of its evolutionary dynamics. Here, we present the first complete species tree of Coraciiformes, produced with 4858 ultraconserved elements, which supports two clades: (1) Old World-restricted bee-eaters, rollers and ground-rollers; and (2) New World todies and motmots, and cosmopolitan kingfishers. Our results indicated two pulses of diversification: (1) major lineages of Coraciiformes arose in Laurasia approximately 57 Ma, followed by independent dispersals into equatorial regions, possibly due to tracking tropical habitat into the lower latitudes-the Coracii (Coraciidae + Brachypteraciidae) into the Afrotropics, bee-eaters throughout the Old World tropics, and kingfishers into the Australasian tropics; and (2) diversification of genera in the tropics during the Miocene and Pliocene. Our study supports the important role of Laurasia as the geographical origin of a major pantropical lineage and provides a new framework for comparative analyses in this charismatic bird radiation.

几十年来，泛热带分布支系的演化一直困扰着古生物学家和新生物学家，他们对这些支系的起源提出了不同的假说。在这项研究中，我们探讨了一个具有丰富化石史的多样化支系--鸟纲戟形目--是如何出现泛热带分布的。这个类群在关于新大陆生物地理历史的争论中扮演了核心角色。然而，该目缺乏连贯的物种树，无法为其进化动态研究提供信息。在此，我们利用 4858 个超保留元素建立了第一棵完整的蝶形目物种树，该物种树支持两个支系：（1）旧大陆限制的食蜂鸟、滚地鸟和地滚鸟；（2）新大陆的蝶形目和鸻形目，以及世界性的翠鸟。我们的研究结果表明了两个多样化的脉冲：(1) Coraciiformes 的主要品系大约在 57 Ma 出现在劳拉西亚，随后独立扩散到赤道地区，这可能是由于将热带栖息地追踪到了低纬度地区--Coracii（Coraciidae + Brachypteraciidae）扩散到了非洲热带地区，食蜂鸟扩散到了整个旧大陆热带地区，翠鸟扩散到了澳大拉西亚热带地区；(2) 中新世和上新世期间，热带地区的属发生了多样化。我们的研究支持了劳拉西亚作为主要泛热带鸟类地理起源的重要作用，并为这一魅力鸟类辐射的比较分析提供了新的框架。

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引用次数: 0

Valence of social information is encoded in different subpopulations of mushroom body Kenyon cells in the honeybee brain 社会信息的价态编码在蜜蜂大脑中不同的蘑菇体凯尼恩细胞亚群中

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.0901

Ian M. Traniello, Zhenqing Chen, Vikram A. Bagchi, G. Robinson

Over 600 Myr of evolutionary divergence between vertebrates and invertebrates is associated with considerable neuroanatomical variation both across and within these lineages. By contrast, valence encoding is an important behavioural trait that is evolutionarily conserved across vertebrates and invertebrates, and enables individuals to distinguish between positive (potentially beneficial) and negative (potentially harmful) situations. We tested the hypothesis that social interactions of positive and negative valence are modularly encoded in the honeybee brain (i.e. encoded in different cellular subpopulations) as in vertebrate brains. In vertebrates, neural activation patterns are distributed across distinct parts of the brain, suggesting that discrete circuits encode positive or negative stimuli. Evidence for this hypothesis would suggest a deep homology of neural organization between insects and vertebrates for valence encoding, despite vastly different brain sizes. Alternatively, overlapping localization of valenced social information in the brain would imply a ‘re-use' of circuitry in response to positive and negative social contexts, potentially to overcome the energetic constraints of a tiny brain. We used immediate early gene expression to map positively and negatively valenced social interactions in the brain of the western honeybee Apis mellifera. We found that the valence of a social signal is represented by distinct anatomical subregions of the mushroom bodies, an invertebrate sensory neuropil associated with social behaviour, multimodal sensory integration, learning and memory. Our results suggest that the modularization of valenced social information in the brain is a fundamental property of neuroanatomical organization.

脊椎动物和无脊椎动物之间超过600兆尔的进化差异与这些谱系之间和内部的相当大的神经解剖学变异有关。相比之下，效价编码是一种重要的行为特征，在脊椎动物和无脊椎动物中都是进化保守的，它使个体能够区分积极(潜在有益)和消极(潜在有害)的情况。我们测试了一个假设，即积极和消极的社会互动在蜜蜂的大脑中是模块化编码的(即在不同的细胞亚群中编码)，就像在脊椎动物的大脑中一样。在脊椎动物中，神经激活模式分布在大脑的不同部分，这表明离散的回路编码积极或消极的刺激。这一假设的证据表明，昆虫和脊椎动物之间的神经组织在价编码方面有着深刻的同源性，尽管大脑大小大不相同。另外，大脑中有价值的社会信息的重叠定位可能意味着回路在积极和消极的社会背景下的“再利用”，有可能克服微小大脑的能量限制。我们使用即时早期基因表达来绘制西方蜜蜂大脑中积极和消极的社会互动。我们发现社会信号的效价由蘑菇体的不同解剖亚区表示，蘑菇体是一种与社会行为、多模态感觉整合、学习和记忆相关的无脊椎感觉神经。我们的研究结果表明，大脑中有价值的社会信息的模块化是神经解剖组织的基本特性。

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引用次数: 15

Unsupervised machine learning reveals mimicry complexes in bumblebees occur along a perceptual continuum. 无监督机器学习揭示了大黄蜂的拟态复合体是沿着感知连续体发生的。

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1501

Briana D Ezray, Drew C Wham, Carrie E Hill, Heather M Hines

Müllerian mimicry theory states that frequency-dependent selection should favour geographical convergence of harmful species onto a shared colour pattern. As such, mimetic patterns are commonly circumscribed into discrete mimicry complexes, each containing a predominant phenotype. Outside a few examples in butterflies, the location of transition zones between mimicry complexes and the factors driving mimicry zones has rarely been examined. To infer the patterns and processes of Müllerian mimicry, we integrate large-scale data on the geographical distribution of colour patterns of social bumblebees across the contiguous United States and use these to quantify colour pattern mimicry using an innovative, unsupervised machine-learning approach based on computer vision. Our data suggest that bumblebees exhibit geographically clustered, but sometimes imperfect colour patterns, and that mimicry patterns gradually transition spatially rather than exhibit discrete boundaries. Additionally, examination of colour pattern transition zones of three comimicking, polymorphic species, where active selection is driving phenotype frequencies, revealed that their transition zones differ in location within a broad region of poor mimicry. Potential factors influencing mimicry transition zone dynamics are discussed.

缪勒拟态理论认为，频率依赖性选择应有利于有害物种在地理上趋同于一种共同的颜色模式。因此，拟态模式通常被划分为离散的拟态复合体，每个复合体都包含一种主要表型。除了蝴蝶中的少数例子外，人们很少研究拟态复合体之间过渡区的位置以及驱动拟态区的因素。为了推断缪勒氏拟态的模式和过程，我们整合了美国毗连地区社会性熊蜂颜色模式地理分布的大规模数据，并使用基于计算机视觉的创新型无监督机器学习方法对颜色模式拟态进行量化。我们的数据表明，大黄蜂表现出地理上的集群，但有时颜色模式并不完美，而且模仿模式在空间上逐渐过渡，而不是表现出离散的边界。此外，在主动选择驱动表型频率的情况下，对三个拟态多态物种的颜色模式过渡区进行的研究表明，它们的过渡区在一个广泛的低拟态区域内的位置各不相同。本文讨论了影响拟态过渡区动态的潜在因素。

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引用次数: 0

Manipulation of natal host modifies adult reproductive behaviour in the butterfly Heliconius charithonia 对出生寄主的操纵改变了蝴蝶Heliconius charithonia成虫的生殖行为

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1225

D. Kemp

Advances in understanding non-genetic inheritance have prompted broader interest in environmental effects. One way in which such effects may influence adaptation is via the transmission of acquired habitat biases. Here I explore how natal experience influences adult host orientation in the oligophagous passion vine butterfly Heliconius charithonia. As an exemplar of the ‘pupal mating' system, this species poses novelty among diurnal Lepidoptera for the extent to which male as well as female reproductive behaviours are guided by olfactory host cues. I sampled wild adult females breeding exclusively upon Passiflora incarnata, assigned their offspring to develop either upon this species or its local alternative Passiflora suberosa, and then assessed the behaviour of F1 adults in a large rainforest enclosure. Despite the fact that juvenile performance was superior upon P. incarnata, females oviposited preferentially upon their assigned natal species. Mate-seeking males also indicated a bias for the proximity of their natal host, and there was evidence for assortative mating based upon host treatment, although these data are less robust. This study is, to my knowledge, the first to support Hopkins' hostplant principle in butterflies, and points to inducible host preferences capable of reinforcing ecological segregation and ultimately accelerating evolutionary divergence in sympatry.

在了解非基因遗传方面的进展促使人们对环境影响产生了更广泛的兴趣。这种影响可能影响适应的一种方式是通过后天生境偏见的传播。在这里，我探讨了出生经历如何影响寡食西番莲蝴蝶的成虫寄主取向。作为“蛹交配”系统的典范，该物种在昼夜活动的鳞翅目中具有新颖性，因为雄性和雌性的生殖行为都是由嗅觉宿主提示引导的。我选取了仅以西番莲为食的野生成年雌性，将它们的后代分配给该物种或其当地替代品西番莲，然后评估了大型雨林圈地中F1成年的行为。尽管幼鱼的产卵表现优于红腹虫，但雌鱼更倾向于产卵于它们指定的出生物种。寻求配偶的雄性也表现出对其出生宿主的接近性的偏见，并且有证据表明基于宿主治疗的选型交配，尽管这些数据不太可靠。据我所知，这项研究是第一个在蝴蝶中支持霍普金斯寄主植物原理的研究，并指出诱导寄主偏好能够加强生态隔离，并最终加速同属生物的进化分化。

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引用次数: 5

Loss of olfaction in sea snakes provides new perspectives on the aquatic adaptation of amniotes 海蛇嗅觉的丧失为研究羊膜动物的水生适应性提供了新的视角

Proceedings of the Royal Society B

Pub Date : 2019-09-11 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1828

T. Kishida, Yasuhiro Go, Shoji Tatsumoto, Kaori Tatsumi, Shigehiro Kuraku, M. Toda

Marine amniotes, a polyphyletic group, provide an excellent opportunity for studying convergent evolution. Their sense of smell tends to degenerate, but this process has not been explored by comparing fully aquatic species with their amphibious relatives in an evolutionary context. Here, we sequenced the genomes of fully aquatic and amphibious sea snakes and identified repertoires of chemosensory receptor genes involved in olfaction. Snakes possess large numbers of the olfactory receptor (OR) genes and the type-2 vomeronasal receptor (V2R) genes, and expression profiling in the olfactory tissues suggests that snakes use the ORs in the main olfactory system (MOS) and the V2Rs in the vomeronasal system (VNS). The number of OR genes has decreased in sea snakes, and fully aquatic species lost MOS which is responsible for detecting airborne odours. By contrast, sea snakes including fully aquatic species retain a number of V2R genes and a well-developed VNS for smelling underwater. This study suggests that the sense of smell also degenerated in sea snakes, particularly in fully aquatic species, but their residual olfactory capability is distinct from that of other fully aquatic amniotes. Amphibious species show an intermediate status between terrestrial and fully aquatic snakes, implying their importance in understanding the process of aquatic adaptation.

海洋羊膜动物是一种多物种类群，为研究趋同进化提供了极好的机会。它们的嗅觉倾向于退化，但这一过程尚未通过将完全水生物种与它们的两栖亲戚在进化背景下进行比较来探索。在这里，我们对全水生和两栖海蛇的基因组进行了测序，并确定了与嗅觉有关的化学感觉受体基因。蛇具有大量的嗅觉受体(OR)基因和2型犁头鼻受体(V2R)基因，在嗅觉组织中的表达谱表明蛇在主嗅觉系统(MOS)中使用ORs基因，在犁头鼻系统(VNS)中使用V2Rs基因。海蛇的OR基因数量已经减少，完全水生的物种失去了负责探测空气中气味的MOS。相比之下，包括完全水生物种在内的海蛇保留了许多V2R基因和发达的VNS，用于在水下嗅觉。这项研究表明，海蛇的嗅觉也退化了，特别是在完全水生的物种中，但它们的残余嗅觉能力与其他完全水生的羊膜动物不同。两栖类蛇介于陆生蛇和完全水生蛇之间，这意味着它们在理解水生适应过程中的重要性。

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引用次数: 21