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Origin of horsetails and the role of whole-genome duplication in plant macroevolution 马尾的起源及全基因组复制在植物宏观进化中的作用
Pub Date : 2019-10-30 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1662
James W. Clark, Mark N. Puttick, P. Donoghue
Whole-genome duplication (WGD) has occurred commonly in land plant evolution and it is often invoked as a causal agent in diversification, phenotypic and developmental innovation, as well as conferring extinction resistance. The ancient and iconic lineage of Equisetum is no exception, where WGD has been inferred to have occurred prior to the Cretaceous–Palaeogene (K–Pg) boundary, coincident with WGD events in angiosperms. In the absence of high species diversity, WGD in Equisetum is interpreted to have facilitated the long-term survival of the lineage. However, this characterization remains uncertain as these analyses of the Equisetum WGD event have not accounted for fossil diversity. Here, we analyse additional available transcriptomes and summarize the fossil record. Our results confirm support for at least one WGD event shared among the majority of extant Equisetum species. Furthermore, we use improved dating methods to constrain the age of gene duplication in geological time and identify two successive Equisetum WGD events. The two WGD events occurred during the Carboniferous and Triassic, respectively, rather than in association with the K–Pg boundary. WGD events are believed to drive high rates of trait evolution and innovations, but analysed trends of morphological evolution across the historical diversity of Equisetum provide little evidence for further macroevolutionary consequences following WGD. WGD events cannot have conferred extinction resistance to the Equisetum lineage through the K–Pg boundary since the ploidy events occurred hundreds of millions of years before this mass extinction and we find evidence of extinction among fossil polyploid Equisetum lineages. Our findings precipitate the need for a review of the proposed roles of WGDs in biological innovation and extinction survival in angiosperm and non-angiosperm lineages alike.
全基因组重复(WGD)在陆地植物的进化过程中很常见,它经常被认为是多样性、表型和发育创新以及赋予灭绝抗性的原因。古老而标志性的Equisetum谱系也不例外,其WGD被推断发生在白垩纪-古近纪(K-Pg)边界之前,与被子植物的WGD事件一致。在缺乏高物种多样性的情况下,木贼的WGD被解释为促进了谱系的长期生存。然而,这种特征仍然不确定,因为这些对Equisetum WGD事件的分析没有考虑到化石多样性。在这里,我们分析了其他可用的转录组,并总结了化石记录。我们的研究结果证实了至少一个WGD事件在大多数现存木贼属物种中共享的支持。此外,我们使用改进的测年方法来限制基因复制在地质时间上的年龄,并确定了两个连续的Equisetum WGD事件。这两次WGD事件分别发生在石炭系和三叠系,而与K-Pg界无关。WGD事件被认为推动了性状进化和创新的高速率,但分析了鼠尾草历史多样性的形态进化趋势,几乎没有证据表明WGD之后的进一步宏观进化后果。WGD事件不可能通过K-Pg边界赋予鼠尾草谱系灭绝抗性,因为倍性事件发生在这次大灭绝之前的数亿年,我们在化石多倍体鼠尾草谱系中发现了灭绝的证据。我们的发现促使我们有必要对WGDs在被子植物和非被子植物谱系的生物创新和灭绝生存中的作用进行回顾。
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引用次数: 15
Post-copulatory sexual selection allows females to alleviate the fitness costs incurred when mating with senescing males 交配后的性选择使雌性在与衰老的雄性交配时减轻了适应性成本
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1675
Pauline Vuarin, Alice Bouchard, L. Lesobre, Gwénaëlle Leveque, T. Chalah, M. S. Jalme, F. Lacroix, Y. Hingrat, G. Sorci
Male senescence has detrimental effects on reproductive success and offspring fitness. When females mate with multiple males during the same reproductive bout, post-copulatory sexual selection that operates either through sperm competition or cryptic female choice might allow females to skew fertilization success towards young males and as such limit the fitness costs incurred when eggs are fertilized by senescing males. Here, we experimentally tested this hypothesis. We artificially inseminated female North African houbara bustards with sperm from dyads of males of different (young and old) or similar ages (either young or old). Then, we assessed whether siring success was biased towards young males and we measured several life-history traits of the progeny to evaluate the fitness costs due to advanced paternal age. In agreement with the prediction, we found that siring success was biased towards young males, and offspring sired by old males had impaired hatching success, growth and post-release survival (in females). Overall, our results support the hypothesis that post-copulatory sexual selection might represent an effective mechanism allowing females to avoid the fitness costs of fertilization by senescing partners.
雄性衰老对生殖成功和后代健康有不利影响。当雌性在同一次繁殖过程中与多个雄性交配时,交配后的性选择,要么通过精子竞争,要么通过隐性的雌性选择,可能会让雌性将受精的成功倾向于年轻雄性,从而限制了卵子被衰老的雄性受精时产生的适应性成本。在这里,我们通过实验验证了这个假设。我们用不同年龄(年轻和年老)或相近年龄(年轻或年老)雄性的精子对雌性北非胡巴拉鸨进行人工授精。然后,我们评估了繁殖成功是否偏向于年轻雄性,并测量了后代的几个生活史特征,以评估由于父亲年龄较大而导致的适应性成本。与预测一致的是,我们发现繁殖成功倾向于年轻雄性,而由年老雄性繁殖的后代(在雌性中)孵化成功率、生长和释放后存活率都受到损害。总的来说,我们的研究结果支持了这样的假设,即交配后的性选择可能是一种有效的机制,允许雌性避免由衰老的伴侣受精的适应性成本。
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引用次数: 19
Interspecific hybridization can generate functional novelty in cichlid fish 种间杂交可以产生新的功能
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1621
O. Selz, O. Seehausen
The role of interspecific hybridization in evolution is still being debated. Interspecific hybridization has been suggested to facilitate the evolution of ecological novelty, and hence the invasion of new niches and adaptive radiation when ecological opportunity is present beyond the parental species niches. On the other hand, hybrids between two ecologically divergent species may perform less well than parental species in their respective niches because hybrids would be intermediate in performance in both niches. The evolutionary consequences of hybridization may hence be context-dependent, depending on whether ecological opportunities, beyond those of the parental species, do or do not exist. Surprisingly, these complementary predictions may never have been tested in the same experiment in animals. To do so, we investigate if hybrids between ecologically distinct cichlid species perform less well than the parental species when feeding on food either parent is adapted to, and if the same hybrids perform better than their parents when feeding on food none of the species are adapted to. We generated two first-generation hybrid crosses between species of African cichlids. In feeding efficiency experiments we measured the performance of hybrids and parental species on food types representing both parental species niches and additional ‘novel’ niches, not used by either of the parental species but by other species in the African cichlid radiations. We found that hybrids can have higher feeding efficiencies on the ‘novel’ food types but typically have lower efficiencies on parental food types when compared to parental species. This suggests that hybridization can generate functional variation that can be of ecological relevance allowing the access to resources outside of either parental species niche. Hence, we provide support for the hypothesis of ecological context-dependency of the evolutionary impact of interspecific hybridization.
种间杂交在进化中的作用仍在争论中。种间杂交被认为促进了生态新颖性的进化,因此,当生态机会存在于亲本物种生态位之外时,新的生态位和适应性辐射就会入侵。另一方面,两个生态不同物种之间的杂交后代在各自生态位上的表现可能不如亲本物种,因为杂交后代在两个生态位上的表现都是中间的。因此,杂交的进化结果可能与环境有关,取决于亲本物种之外的生态机会是否存在。令人惊讶的是,这些互补的预测可能从未在动物身上进行过相同的实验。为了做到这一点,我们研究了生态上不同的慈鲷物种之间的杂交种,在以父母双方都适应的食物为食时,是否表现得不如亲本物种,以及相同的杂交种,在以两种物种都不适应的食物为食时,是否表现得比父母更好。我们培育了两个非洲慈鲷的第一代杂交品种。在饲养效率实验中,我们测量了杂交物种和亲本物种在食物类型上的表现,这些食物类型代表亲本物种生态位和额外的“新”生态位,这些生态位不是亲本物种中的任何一种,而是非洲慈鲷辐射中的其他物种。我们发现,与亲本物种相比,杂交种对“新”食物类型的摄食效率更高,但对亲本食物类型的摄食效率通常较低。这表明杂交可以产生与生态相关的功能变异,从而允许获得亲本物种生态位以外的资源。因此,我们为种间杂交对进化影响的生态环境依赖假说提供了支持。
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引用次数: 46
Meiotic drive mechanisms: lessons from Drosophila 减数分裂驱动机制:来自果蝇的启示
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1430
C. Courret, Ching-ho Chang, K. Wei, C. Montchamp-Moreau, A. Larracuente
Meiotic drivers are selfish genetic elements that bias their transmission into gametes, often to the detriment of the rest of the genome. The resulting intragenomic conflicts triggered by meiotic drive create evolutionary arms races and shape genome evolution. The phenomenon of meiotic drive is widespread across taxa but is particularly prominent in the Drosophila genus. Recent studies in Drosophila have provided insights into the genetic origins of drivers and their molecular mechanisms. Here, we review the current literature on mechanisms of drive with an emphasis on sperm killers in Drosophila species. In these systems, meiotic drivers often evolve from gene duplications and targets are generally linked to heterochromatin. While dense in repetitive elements and difficult to study using traditional genetic and genomic approaches, recent work in Drosophila has made progress on the heterochromatic compartment of the genome. Although we still understand little about precise drive mechanisms, studies of male drive systems are converging on common themes such as heterochromatin regulation, small RNA pathways, and nuclear transport pathways. Meiotic drive systems are therefore promising models for discovering fundamental features of gametogenesis.
减数分裂驱动因子是自私的遗传因素,它们偏向于将减数分裂传递到配子中,通常会损害基因组的其余部分。减数分裂驱动引发的基因组内冲突产生了进化军备竞赛,并形成了基因组进化。减数分裂驱动现象在整个分类群中广泛存在,但在果蝇属中尤为突出。最近对果蝇的研究为驱动因子的遗传起源及其分子机制提供了见解。在这里,我们回顾了目前关于驱动机制的文献,重点是果蝇物种的精子杀手。在这些系统中,减数分裂驱动因素通常从基因复制进化而来,靶标通常与异染色质有关。虽然重复元素密集,难以使用传统的遗传和基因组方法进行研究,但最近在果蝇基因组的异色室方面的工作取得了进展。尽管我们对精确的驱动机制仍然知之甚少,但对男性驱动系统的研究正集中在异染色质调节、小RNA途径和核运输途径等共同主题上。因此,减数分裂驱动系统是发现配子发生基本特征的有希望的模型。
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引用次数: 60
Altered lentiviral infection dynamics follow genetic rescue of the Florida panther 改变慢病毒感染动力学遵循佛罗里达黑豹的遗传救援
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1689
J. Malmberg, JUSTIN S. Lee, R. Gagne, S. Kraberger, Sarah Kechejian, M. Roelke, R. McBride, D. Onorato, M. Cunningham, K. Crooks, S. Vandewoude
Wildlife translocations are a commonly used strategy in endangered species recovery programmes. Although translocations require detailed assessment of risk, their impact on parasite distribution has not been thoroughly assessed. This is despite the observation that actions that alter host–parasite distributions can drive evolution or introduce new parasites to previously sequestered populations. Here, we use a contemporary approach to amplify viral sequences from archived biological samples to characterize a previously undocumented impact of the successful genetic rescue of the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi). Our efforts reveal transmission of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) during translocation of pumas from Texas to Florida, resulting in extirpation of a historic Florida panther FIV subtype and expansion of a genetically stable subtype that is highly conserved in Texas and Florida. We used coalescent theory to estimate viral demography across time and show an exponential increase in the effective population size of FIV coincident with expansion of the panther population. Additionally, we show that FIV isolates from Texas are basal to isolates from Florida. Interestingly, FIV genomes recovered from Florida and Texas demonstrate exceptionally low interhost divergence. Low host genomic diversity and lack of additional introgressions may underlie the surprising lack of FIV evolution over 2 decades. We conclude that modern FIV in the Florida panther disseminated following genetic rescue and rapid population expansion, and that infectious disease risks should be carefully considered during conservation efforts involving translocations. Further, viral evolutionary dynamics may be significantly altered by ecological niche, host diversity and connectivity between host populations.
野生动物易位是濒危物种恢复计划中常用的策略。虽然易位需要详细的风险评估,但其对寄生虫分布的影响尚未得到彻底评估。尽管观察到改变宿主-寄生虫分布的行动可以推动进化或向以前隔离的种群引入新的寄生虫。在这里,我们使用现代方法从存档的生物样本中扩增病毒序列,以表征以前未记载的佛罗里达美洲豹(美洲狮)成功遗传拯救的影响。我们的研究揭示了猫科免疫缺陷病毒(FIV)在美洲狮从德克萨斯州到佛罗里达州的易位过程中的传播,导致历史上佛罗里达美洲豹FIV亚型的灭绝和德克萨斯州和佛罗里达州高度保守的遗传稳定亚型的扩展。我们使用聚结理论来估计病毒随时间的人口分布,并显示出FIV有效种群规模的指数增长与黑豹种群的扩张一致。此外,我们发现来自德克萨斯州的FIV分离株是来自佛罗里达州的分离株的基础。有趣的是,从佛罗里达州和德克萨斯州恢复的FIV基因组显示出异常低的宿主间分化。低宿主基因组多样性和缺乏额外的基因渗入可能是近20年来FIV进化缺乏的原因。我们得出结论,佛罗里达黑豹的现代FIV是在遗传救援和种群快速扩张后传播的,在涉及易位的保护工作中应仔细考虑传染病风险。此外,病毒的进化动态可能会被生态位、宿主多样性和宿主种群之间的连通性显著改变。
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引用次数: 6
Synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy of melanosomes in vertebrates and cephalopods: implications for the affinity of Tullimonstrum 脊椎动物和头足类动物黑素体的同步加速器x射线吸收光谱研究:对白头草亲和力的影响
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1649
C. Rogers, Timothy I. Astrop, S. Webb, S. Ito, K. Wakamatsu, M. McNamara
Screening pigments are essential for vision in animals. Vertebrates use melanins bound in melanosomes as screening pigments, whereas cephalopods are assumed to use ommochromes. Preserved eye melanosomes in the controversial fossil Tullimonstrum (Mazon Creek, IL, USA) are partitioned by size and/or shape into distinct layers. These layers resemble tissue-specific melanosome populations considered unique to the vertebrate eye. Here, we show that extant cephalopod eyes also show tissue-specific size- and/or shape-specific partitioning of melanosomes; these differ from vertebrate melanosomes in the relative abundance of trace metals and in the binding environment of copper. Chemical signatures of melanosomes in the eyes of Tullimonstrum more closely resemble those of modern cephalopods than those of vertebrates, suggesting that an invertebrate affinity for Tullimonstrum is plausible. Melanosome chemistry may thus provide insights into the phylogenetic affinities of enigmatic fossils where melanosome size and/or shape are equivocal.
筛选色素对动物的视力至关重要。脊椎动物使用结合在黑素体中的黑色素作为筛选色素,而头足类动物被认为使用同色体。在有争议的化石Tullimonstrum (Mazon Creek, IL, USA)中保存的眼睛黑素体按大小和/或形状划分为不同的层。这些层类似于被认为是脊椎动物眼睛特有的组织特异性黑素体种群。在这里,我们表明,现存的头足类动物的眼睛也显示出组织特异性的大小和/或形状特异性的黑素体分配;它们与脊椎动物黑素体的不同之处在于微量金属的相对丰度和铜的结合环境。与脊椎动物相比,Tullimonstrum眼睛中黑色素体的化学特征更接近于现代头足类动物的眼睛,这表明无脊椎动物与Tullimonstrum的亲和力是可信的。因此,黑素体化学可以为黑素体大小和/或形状不明的神秘化石的系统发育亲缘关系提供见解。
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引用次数: 13
It's what's on the inside that counts: stress physiology and the bacterial microbiome of a wild urban mammal 重要的是它的内部:压力生理学和野生城市哺乳动物的细菌微生物群
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2111
Mason R. Stothart, R. Palme, A. Newman
The microbiome's capacity to shape the host phenotype and its mutability underlie theorization that the microbiome might facilitate host acclimation to rapid environmental change. However, when environmental change occurs, it is unclear whether resultant microbiome restructuring is proximately driven by this changing external environment or by the host's physiological response to this change. We leveraged urbanization to compare the ability of host environment (urban or forest) versus multi-scale biological measures of host hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis physiology (neutrophil : lymphocyte ratio, faecal glucocorticoid metabolites, hair cortisol) to explain variation in the eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) faecal microbiome. Urban and forest squirrels differed across all three of the interpretations of HPA axis activity we measured. Direct consideration of these physiological measures better explained greater phylogenetic turnover between squirrels than environment. This pattern was strongly driven by trade-offs between bacteria which specialize on metabolizing digesta versus host-derived nutrient sources. Drawing on ecological theory to explain patterns in intestinal bacterial communities, we conclude that although environmental change can affect the microbiome, it might primarily do so indirectly by altering host physiology. We demonstrate that the inclusion and careful consideration of dynamic, rather than fixed (e.g. sex), dimensions of host physiology are essential for the study of host–microbe symbioses at the micro-evolutionary scale.
微生物组塑造宿主表型的能力及其易变性奠定了微生物组可能促进宿主适应快速环境变化的理论基础。然而,当环境发生变化时,尚不清楚由此产生的微生物组重组是否直接由外部环境变化驱动,还是由宿主对这种变化的生理反应驱动。我们利用城市化来比较宿主环境(城市或森林)与宿主下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺(HPA)轴生理学(中性粒细胞:淋巴细胞比率,粪便糖皮质激素代谢物,毛发皮质醇)的多尺度生物学测量的能力,以解释东部灰松鼠(Sciurus carolinensis)粪便微生物组的变化。城市松鼠和森林松鼠在我们测量的HPA轴活动的所有三种解释上都有所不同。直接考虑这些生理指标能更好地解释松鼠之间比环境更大的系统发育转换。这种模式是由专门代谢消化物的细菌与宿主来源的营养来源之间的权衡所强烈驱动的。利用生态学理论来解释肠道细菌群落的模式,我们得出结论,尽管环境变化可以影响微生物组,但主要是通过改变宿主生理来间接影响微生物组。我们证明,包括和仔细考虑动态的,而不是固定的(如性别),宿主生理学的维度是在微观进化尺度上研究宿主-微生物共生所必需的。
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引用次数: 40
Ecological opportunity shapes a large Arctic charr species radiation 生态机遇塑造了北极大量碳物种的辐射
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1992
Carmela J. Doenz, Andrin K. Krähenbühl, Jonas Walker, O. Seehausen, J. Brodersen
Ecological opportunity is considered a crucial factor for adaptive radiation. Here, we combine genetic, morphological and ecological data to assess species and ecomorphological diversity of Artic charr in six lakes of a catchment in southernmost Greenland, where only charr and stickleback occur. Because the diversity of habitats and resources increases with lake size, we predict a positive association between lake size and the extent of ecomorphological diversity. The largest lake of the catchment harbours the largest Arctic charr assemblage known today. It consists of six genetically differentiated species belonging to five ecomorphs (anadromous, littoral benthic, profundal dwarf, planktivorous, piscivorous), of which the latter comprises two ecomorphologically extremely similar species. Lakes of intermediate size contain two ecomorphologically and genetically distinct species. Small lakes harbour one genetically homogeneous, yet sometimes ecomorphologically variable population. Supporting our prediction, lake size is positively correlated with the extent of ecomorphological specialization towards profundal, pelagic and piscivorous lifestyle. Furthermore, assemblage-wide morphospace increases sharply when more than one genetic cluster is present. Our data suggest that ecological opportunity and speciation jointly determine phenotypic expansion in this charr radiation.
生态机会被认为是适应性辐射的关键因素。在这里,我们结合遗传、形态学和生态学数据,评估了格陵兰岛最南端一个集水区的六个湖泊中北极炭鱼的物种和生态形态多样性,那里只有炭鱼和棘鱼。由于生境和资源的多样性随着湖泊规模的增大而增加,我们预测湖泊规模与生态形态多样性程度呈正相关。该集水区最大的湖泊拥有今天已知的最大的北极木炭群落。它由6个遗传分化的物种组成,属于5种生态形态(溯河、沿海底栖、深海侏儒、浮游、鱼食),其中后者包括两个生态形态极为相似的物种。中等大小的湖泊包含两种生态形态和遗传上不同的物种。小湖泊拥有一种遗传上同质的种群,但有时生态形态上存在差异。支持我们的预测,湖泊大小与生态形态向深海、远洋和食鱼生活方式的专业化程度呈正相关。此外,当存在一个以上的遗传簇时,整个组合的形态空间急剧增加。我们的数据表明,生态机会和物种形成共同决定了这种碳辐射的表型扩展。
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引用次数: 27
Beyond drugs: the evolution of genes involved in human response to medications 药物之外:人类对药物反应的基因进化
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1716
S. Fuselli
The genetic variation of our species reflects human demographic history and adaptation to diverse local environments. Part of this genetic variation affects individual responses to exogenous substances, such as food, pollutants and drugs, and plays an important role in drug efficacy and safety. This review provides a synthesis of the evolution of loci implicated in human pharmacological response and metabolism, interpreted within the theoretical framework of population genetics and molecular evolution. In particular, I review and discuss key evolutionary aspects of different pharmacogenes in humans and other species, such as the relationship between the type of substrates and rate of evolution; the selective pressure exerted by landscape variables or dietary habits; expected and observed patterns of rare genetic variation. Finally, I discuss how this knowledge can be translated directly or after the implementation of specific studies, into practical guidelines.
人类的遗传变异反映了人类的人口历史和对不同地方环境的适应。这种遗传变异部分影响个体对外源物质(如食物、污染物和药物)的反应,对药物的有效性和安全性起着重要作用。本文综述了与人类药理反应和代谢有关的基因座的进化,并在群体遗传学和分子进化的理论框架内进行了解释。特别地,我回顾和讨论了人类和其他物种中不同药物基因的关键进化方面,例如底物类型和进化速度之间的关系;景观变量或饮食习惯施加的选择压力;预期和观察到的罕见遗传变异模式。最后,我讨论了如何将这些知识直接或在具体研究实施后转化为实用指南。
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引用次数: 16
Sensory gaze stabilization in echolocating bats 回声定位蝙蝠的感觉凝视稳定
Pub Date : 2019-10-23 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1496
O. Eitan, G. Kósa, Y. Yovel
Sensing from a moving platform is challenging for both man-made machines and animals. Animals' heads jitter during movement, so if the sensors they carry are not stabilized, any spatial estimation might be biased. Flying animals, like bats, seriously suffer from this problem because flapping flight induces rapid changes in acceleration which moves the body up and down. For echolocating bats, the problem is crucial. Because they emit a sound to sense the world, an unstable head means sound energy pointed in the wrong direction. It is unknown how bats mitigate this problem. By tracking the head and body of flying fruit bats, we show that they stabilize their heads, accurately maintaining a fixed acoustic-gaze relative to a target. Bats can solve the stabilization task even in complete darkness using only echo-based information. Moreover, the bats point their echolocation beam below the target and not towards it, a strategy that should result in better estimations of target elevation.
从移动平台上进行感知对人造机器和动物来说都是一项挑战。动物的头部在运动过程中会抖动,所以如果它们携带的传感器不稳定,任何空间估计都可能有偏差。会飞的动物,比如蝙蝠,就深受这个问题的困扰,因为拍打翅膀的飞行会引起加速度的快速变化,从而使身体上下移动。对于回声定位的蝙蝠来说,这个问题至关重要。因为它们发出声音来感知世界,不稳定的头部意味着指向错误方向的声音能量。蝙蝠如何缓解这个问题尚不清楚。通过追踪飞行果蝠的头部和身体,我们发现它们可以稳定头部,准确地保持相对于目标的固定声音凝视。即使在完全黑暗的环境中,蝙蝠也能利用基于回声的信息来完成稳定任务。此外,蝙蝠的回声定位波束指向目标下方,而不是指向目标,这种策略应该能更好地估计目标的高度。
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引用次数: 15
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Proceedings of the Royal Society B
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