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Portrayal of risk information and its impact on audiences' risk perception during the Covid-19 pandemic: A multi-method approach. Covid-19 大流行期间风险信息的描述及其对受众风险认知的影响:采用多种方法。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-20 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17681
Annemarie Wiedicke, Paula Stehr, Constanze Rossmann

Over the last years, infectious diseases have been traveling across international borders faster than ever before, resulting in major public health crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Given the rapid changes and unknown risks that mark such events, risk communication faces the challenge to raise awareness and concern among the public without creating panic. Drawing on the social amplification of risk framework-a concept that theorizes how and why risks are amplified or attenuated during the (1) transfer of risk information (by, for instance, news media) and (2) audiences' interpretation and perception of these information-we were interested in the portrayal of risk information and its impact on audiences' risk perception over the first wave of the Covid-19 pandemic in Germany. We therefore conducted a quantitative content analysis of a major public and private television (TV) newscast (N = 321) and combined it with survey data (two-wave panel survey, t1: N = 1378 and t2: N = 1061). Our results indicate that TV news (as a major information source at that time) were characterized by both risk-attenuating and risk-amplifying characteristics, although risk-amplifying attributes were particularly pronounced by the private TV newscast. Notably, those who only used private TV news between both waves showed the highest perceived severity at time 2. However, the interaction effect of time and use of public and/or private TV news was only significant for perceived susceptibility. Overall, more research is needed to examine the effects of different types of media and changes in risk perceptions over time.

在过去几年里,传染病跨越国界的速度比以往任何时候都要快,导致了重大的公共卫生危机,如 Covid-19 大流行病。鉴于此类事件的快速变化和未知风险,风险交流面临着在不造成恐慌的情况下提高公众意识和关注的挑战。我们借鉴了风险的社会放大框架--这一概念从理论上探讨了风险在(1)风险信息的传递(如新闻媒体)和(2)受众对这些信息的解读和感知过程中如何以及为什么会被放大或减弱--我们对德国 Covid-19 大流行第一波的风险信息描述及其对受众风险感知的影响很感兴趣。因此,我们对主要的公共和私营电视(TV)新闻节目(N = 321)进行了定量内容分析,并将其与调查数据(两波小组调查,t1:N = 1378,t2:N = 1061)相结合。我们的结果表明,电视新闻(作为当时的主要信息来源)既有降低风险的特点,也有增加风险的特点,但私营电视新闻广播增加风险的特点尤为明显。值得注意的是,在两次波次之间只使用私营电视新闻的受访者在第 2 次波次时显示出了最高的感知严重性。然而,时间与使用公共和/或私营电视新闻的交互效应只对感知到的易感性有显著影响。总之,需要进行更多的研究来探讨不同类型媒体的影响以及风险认知随时间的变化。
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引用次数: 0
JointLIME: An interpretation method for machine learning survival models with endogenous time-varying covariates in credit scoring. JointLIME:信用评分中带有内生时变协变量的机器学习生存模型的解释方法。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-20 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17679
Yujia Chen, Raffaella Calabrese, Belen Martin-Barragan

In this work, we introduce JointLIME, a novel interpretation method for explaining black-box survival (BBS) models with endogenous time-varying covariates (TVCs). Existing interpretation methods, like SurvLIME, are limited to BBS models only with time-invariant covariates. To fill this gap, JointLIME leverages the Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations (LIME) framework to apply the joint model to approximate the survival functions predicted by the BBS model in a local area around a new individual. To achieve this, JointLIME minimizes the distances between survival functions predicted by the black-box survival model and those derived from the joint model. The outputs of this minimization problem are the coefficient values of each covariate in the joint model, serving as explanations to quantify their impact on survival predictions. JointLIME uniquely incorporates endogenous TVCs using a spline-based model coupled with the Monte Carlo method for precise estimations within any specified prediction period. These estimations are then integrated to formulate the joint model in the optimization problem. We illustrate the explanation results of JointLIME using a US mortgage data set and compare them with those of SurvLIME.

在这项工作中,我们介绍了一种新的解释方法 JointLIME,用于解释具有内生时变协变量(TVC)的黑盒生存(BBS)模型。现有的解释方法,如 SurvLIME,仅限于具有时变协变量的 BBS 模型。为了填补这一空白,JointLIME 利用本地可解释模型-不可知论解释(LIME)框架,在新个体周围的局部区域应用联合模型来近似 BBS 模型预测的生存函数。为此,JointLIME 将黑盒生存模型预测的生存函数与联合模型得出的生存函数之间的距离最小化。这个最小化问题的输出是联合模型中每个协变量的系数值,用于量化它们对生存预测的影响。JointLIME 采用基于样条线的模型和蒙特卡罗方法,将内生 TVC 独一无二地纳入其中,以便在任何指定预测期内进行精确估算。然后将这些估算结果整合到优化问题的联合模型中。我们使用美国抵押贷款数据集说明了 JointLIME 的解释结果,并与 SurvLIME 的解释结果进行了比较。
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引用次数: 0
A quantitative analysis of biosafety and biosecurity using attack trees in low-to-moderate risk scenarios: Evidence from iGEM. 利用攻击树在中低风险情况下对生物安全和生物安保进行定量分析:来自 iGEM 的证据。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-17 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17678
Xi Zhang, Zhanpeng Xiao, Te Zhang, Xin Wei

As synthetic biology is extensively applied in numerous frontier disciplines, the biosafety and biosecurity concerns with designing and constructing novel biological parts, devices, and systems have inevitably come to the forefront due to potential misuse, abuse, and environmental risks from unintended exposure or potential ecological impacts. The International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) competition often serves as the inception of many synthetic biologists' research careers and plays a pivotal role in the secure progression of the entire synthetic biology field. Even with iGEM's emphasis on biosafety and biosecurity, continuous risk assessment is crucial due to the potential for unforeseen consequences and the relative inexperience of many participants. In this study, possible risk points for the iGEM projects in 2022 were extracted. An attack tree that captures potential risks and threats from experimental procedures, ethical issues, and hardware safety for each iGEM-based attack scenario is constructed. It is found that most of the attack scenarios are related to experimental procedures. The relative likelihood of each scenario is then determined by using an established assessment framework. This research expands the traditionally qualitative analysis of risk society theory, reveals the risk formation in the synthetic biology team, and provides practical implications.

随着合成生物学在众多前沿学科中的广泛应用,设计和构建新型生物部件、装置和系统所涉及的生物安全和生物安保问题不可避免地成为人们关注的焦点,因为这些问题可能会被误用、滥用,以及无意暴露或潜在生态影响所带来的环境风险。国际基因工程机器大赛(iGEM)通常是许多合成生物学家研究事业的起点,在整个合成生物学领域的安全发展中起着举足轻重的作用。即使 iGEM 强调生物安全和生物安保,但由于可能出现不可预见的后果,而且许多参赛者相对缺乏经验,因此持续的风险评估至关重要。本研究提取了 2022 年 iGEM 项目可能存在的风险点。针对每种基于 iGEM 的攻击情景,构建了一棵攻击树,从实验程序、伦理问题和硬件安全等方面捕捉潜在的风险和威胁。结果发现,大多数攻击情景都与实验程序有关。然后,利用已建立的评估框架确定了每种情景的相对可能性。这项研究扩展了风险社会理论的传统定性分析,揭示了合成生物学团队中的风险形成,并提供了实际意义。
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引用次数: 0
Two paths of news frames affecting support for particulate matter policies in South Korea: The moderating roles of media exposure and psychological distance. 新闻框架影响韩国颗粒物政策支持度的两条路径:媒体曝光率和心理距离的调节作用。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-13 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17675
In-Jae Lim, Yungwook Kim, Soyoung Kim

This study examined the paths through which the news frames of particulate matter (PM) influence support for governmental policies aiming to address PM. It also explored the mediating effects of anxiety and risk perception in the relationship between news frames and policy support, as well as the moderating effects of media exposure and psychological distance on the PM news framing effect. Based on an experimental design (N = 676), two groups of news frames were prepared for comparison: a narrative frame group and a numerical frame group. The results showed no significant differences in anxiety or risk perception between the two groups. Further, no significant mediating effects of anxiety or risk perception were found in the process through which PM news frames influence support for governmental policies. However, media exposure significantly moderated the effect of the narrative frame: With high (low) media exposure, the narrative frame positively (negatively) influenced policy support through risk perception. Moreover, when the level of psychological distance was low, the narrative frame positively influenced policy support through risk perception. This study contributes to the literature on news framing of PM by integrating cognitive and emotional mechanisms in forming policy attitudes.

本研究探讨了颗粒物(PM)新闻框架影响对旨在解决PM问题的政府政策的支持的途径。研究还探讨了焦虑和风险认知在新闻框架与政策支持之间的中介效应,以及媒体接触和心理距离对可吸入颗粒物新闻框架效应的调节作用。基于实验设计(N = 676),我们准备了两组新闻框架进行比较:叙事框架组和数字框架组。结果显示,两组在焦虑和风险感知方面没有明显差异。此外,在总理新闻框架影响对政府政策的支持的过程中,也没有发现焦虑或风险认知有明显的中介效应。然而,媒体接触对叙事框架的影响有明显的调节作用:媒体曝光率高(低)时,叙事框架通过风险认知对政策支持产生积极(消极)影响。此外,当心理距离水平较低时,叙事框架会通过风险认知对政策支持产生积极影响。本研究通过整合政策态度形成过程中的认知和情感机制,为有关总理新闻框架的文献做出了贡献。
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引用次数: 0
A generalized multinomial probabilistic model for SARS-COV-2 infection prediction and public health intervention assessment in an indoor environment. 用于室内环境中 SARS-COV-2 感染预测和公共卫生干预评估的广义多项式概率模型。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-11 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17673
Victor O K Li, Jacqueline C K Lam, Yuxuan Sun, Yang Han, Kelvin Chan, Shanshan Wang, Jon Crowcroft, Jocelyn Downey, Qi Zhang

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and its sub-lineages have become the predominant variants globally since early 2022. As of January 2023, over 664 million confirmed cases and over 6.7 million deaths had been reported globally. Current infection models are limited by the need for large datasets or calibration to specific contexts, making them difficult to apply to different settings. This study aims to develop a generalized multinomial probabilistic model of airborne infection to assist public health decision-makers in evaluating the effectiveness of public health interventions (PHIs) across a broad spectrum of scenarios. The proposed model systematically incorporates group characteristics, epidemiology, viral loads, social activities, environmental conditions, and PHIs. Assumptions about social distance and contact duration that estimate infectivity during short-term group gatherings have been made. The study is differentiated from earlier works on probabilistic infection modeling in the following ways: (1) predicting new cases arising from more than one infectious person in a gathering, (2) incorporating additional key infection factors, and (3) evaluating the effectiveness of multiple PHIs on SARS-CoV-2 infection simultaneously. Although the results show that limiting group size has an impact on infection, improving ventilation has a much greater positive health impact. The proposed model is versatile and can flexibly accommodate other scenarios or airborne diseases by modifying the parameters allowing new factors to be added.

自 2022 年初以来,SARS-CoV-2 Omicron 及其亚系已成为全球的主要变种。截至 2023 年 1 月,全球报告的确诊病例超过 6.64 亿例,死亡病例超过 670 万例。目前的感染模型因需要大量数据集或根据特定环境进行校准而受到限制,难以应用于不同环境。本研究旨在开发一种空气传播感染的广义多项式概率模型,以帮助公共卫生决策者在各种情况下评估公共卫生干预措施(PHIs)的有效性。该模型系统地纳入了群体特征、流行病学、病毒载量、社会活动、环境条件和 PHIs。对社会距离和接触持续时间进行了假设,以估计短期群体聚集时的感染率。这项研究与以前的概率感染建模不同之处在于:(1) 预测了一个聚会中不止一个感染者引起的新病例,(2) 纳入了更多的关键感染因素,(3) 同时评估了多种 PHI 对 SARS-CoV-2 感染的有效性。尽管结果表明,限制人群规模对感染有影响,但改善通风对健康的积极影响更大。所提出的模型用途广泛,可通过修改参数灵活适应其他情况或空气传播疾病,并允许添加新的因素。
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引用次数: 0
Investigating the role of community organizations in communicating extreme weather events in New York City: A content analysis. 调查社区组织在传播纽约市极端天气事件中的作用:内容分析。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-11 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17677
Christine Gilbert, Ruobing Li, Brian Colle, Josef Moses, Sarah Golden

The communication of extreme weather forecasts (e.g., heatwaves and extreme precipitation) is a challenge for weather forecasters and emergency managers who are tasked with keeping residents safe during often unprecedented situations. Weather models have inherent uncertainty, and the ability for potentially life-saving information to get to the people who need it most (e.g., those who need to evacuate) remains a challenge despite the proliferation of digital access to information and social media sites like Twitter. It is also unclear the role that community-based organizations and super-local governmental entities play or may play during weather events in transmitting weather information and providing assistance. In New York City, there remains robust inequality, with communities that are historically disadvantaged often suffering the highest number of deaths and level of destruction following weather events. Results from interviewing 26 New York City community leaders suggest that local organizations often act as intermediaries, passing on official weather information to members of their audience, regardless of the mission statement of their organization. Common challenges for communities in responding to extreme weather include lack of access to information, language barriers, and insufficient resources. Considerations for future weather communication strategies are discussed.

极端天气预报(如热浪和极端降水)的传播对天气预报员和应急管理人员来说是一个挑战,他们的任务是在通常前所未有的情况下保证居民的安全。天气模型本身具有不确定性,尽管数字信息和 Twitter 等社交媒体网站的普及,但如何将可能挽救生命的信息传递给最需要的人(如需要撤离的人)仍然是一个挑战。此外,社区组织和超级地方政府实体在天气事件期间在传递天气信息和提供援助方面发挥或可能发挥的作用也不明确。纽约市仍然存在严重的不平等现象,历史上处于不利地位的社区往往在天气事件发生后死亡人数最多,遭受的破坏程度最大。对纽约市 26 个社区领袖的访谈结果表明,地方组织往往充当中间人的角色,向其受众传递官方天气信息,而不管其组织的使命宣言是什么。社区在应对极端天气时面临的共同挑战包括缺乏获取信息的渠道、语言障碍和资源不足。本文讨论了未来天气传播战略的考虑因素。
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引用次数: 0
From infodemic to resilience: Exploring COVID-19 protective measures in armed-conflict zone. 从信息到复原力:探索武装冲突地区的 COVID-19 保护措施。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-11 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17670
Mona Salim, Jiuchang Wei

The proliferation of inaccurate and misleading information about COVID-19 on social media poses a significant public health concern. This study examines the impact of the infodemic and beneficial information on COVID-19 protective behaviors in an armed-conflict country. Using the protective action decision model (PADM), data were collected from 1439 participants through a questionnaire in Yemen between August 2020 and April 2021. Structural equation modeling tested hypotheses generated by the PADM. The findings indicate that the infodemic reduces the likelihood of individuals adopting protective measures against COVID-19. Surprisingly, official announcements by accountable authorities do not moderate the relationship between the infodemic and protective responses. These results highlight the need for further research on resilience in armed-conflict countries. This study contributes to understanding armed-conflict countries' unique challenges in combating health crises. Addressing the infodemic and promoting accurate information is crucial in enhancing protective behaviors and mitigating the negative impact of misinformation. Policymakers and public health authorities can utilize these insights to develop targeted interventions and communication strategies that ensure accurate information dissemination and encourage the adoption of adequate protective measures.

社交媒体上有关 COVID-19 的不准确和误导性信息的泛滥是一个重大的公共卫生问题。本研究探讨了在一个武装冲突国家中,信息流和有益信息对 COVID-19 防护行为的影响。本研究采用保护行动决策模型(PADM),于 2020 年 8 月至 2021 年 4 月期间在也门通过问卷调查收集了 1439 名参与者的数据。结构方程模型检验了 PADM 提出的假设。研究结果表明,信息流行降低了个人对 COVID-19 采取保护措施的可能性。令人惊讶的是,问责机构的官方公告并没有缓和信息流行与防护措施之间的关系。这些结果凸显了进一步研究武装冲突国家复原力的必要性。本研究有助于了解武装冲突国家在应对卫生危机方面所面临的独特挑战。应对信息流行和宣传准确的信息对于加强保护行为和减轻错误信息的负面影响至关重要。政策制定者和公共卫生当局可以利用这些见解制定有针对性的干预措施和传播策略,以确保准确的信息传播并鼓励采取适当的保护措施。
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引用次数: 0
Optimal sampling strategy for probability estimation: An application to the Agricultural Quarantine Inspection Monitoring program. 概率估计的最优抽样策略:农业检疫检验监测计划的应用。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-10 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17669
Huidi Ma, Benjamin D Leibowicz, John J Hasenbein

Imported agricultural pests can cause substantial damage to agriculture, food security, and ecosystems. In the United States, the Agricultural Quarantine Inspection Monitoring (AQIM) program conducts random sampling to estimate the probabilities that cargo and passengers arriving at ports of entry carry pests. Assessing these risks accurately is critical to enable effective policies and operational procedures. This study introduces a pathway-level analysis with an objective function aligned with AQIM's goal, offering a new perspective compared to the current container-by-container approach, which relies on heuristics to set inspection rates. We formulate an optimization model that minimizes the mean squared error of the probability estimates that AQIM obtains. The central decision-making tradeoff that the model explores is whether it is preferable to sample more arriving containers (and fewer boxes per container) or more boxes per container (and fewer containers), given limited resources. We first derive an analytical solution for the optimal sampling strategy by leveraging several approximations. Then, we apply our model to a numerical case study of maritime cargo sampling at the Port of Long Beach. Across a wide range of parameter settings, the optimal strategy samples more containers (but fewer boxes per container) than the current AQIM protocol. The difference between the two strategies and the accuracy improvement with the optimal approach are larger if the pest statuses of boxes in the same container are more strongly correlated. We recommend that AQIM record box-level (beyond only container-level) inspection data, which could be used to estimate this correlation and other model parameters.

进口农业害虫可对农业、粮食安全和生态系统造成重大损害。在美国,农业检疫检验监测(AQIM)计划通过随机抽样来估计抵达入境口岸的货物和旅客携带有害生物的概率。准确评估这些风险对于制定有效的政策和操作程序至关重要。本研究引入了路径级分析,其目标函数与 AQIM 的目标一致,与目前依赖启发式方法设定检查率的逐集装箱方法相比,提供了一个新的视角。我们制定了一个优化模型,使 AQIM 获得的概率估计的均方误差最小化。该模型探讨的核心决策权衡问题是,在资源有限的情况下,是对更多到达的集装箱(每个集装箱的箱数较少)进行抽样,还是对每个集装箱的箱数较多(集装箱数量较少)进行抽样。我们首先利用几种近似方法推导出最优采样策略的分析解决方案。然后,我们将模型应用于长滩港海运货物抽样的数值案例研究。在各种参数设置下,最优策略比当前的 AQIM 协议采样更多的集装箱(但每个集装箱采样的箱数更少)。如果同一集装箱内箱子的虫害状态相关性较强,则两种策略之间的差异和最优方法的准确性提高幅度会更大。我们建议 AQIM 记录箱级(而不仅仅是集装箱级)检查数据,这些数据可用于估算这种相关性和其他模型参数。
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引用次数: 0
The need for general adaptive capacity-Discussing resilience with complex adaptive systems theory. 对一般适应能力的需求--用复杂适应系统理论讨论复原力。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-10 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17676
Benjamin Scharte

The concept of resilience intrinsically links with both complexity and adaptive capacity. Scholars from different fields agree on this. Still, the detailed relations between resilience, complexity, and adaptive capacity need a more thorough theoretical analysis. This article analyses resilience with the help of assumptions from complex adaptive systems (CAS) theory to answer two questions in more detail: What is the relation between resilience and complexity? How can adaptive capacity contribute to resilience? By applying basic ideas from CAS theory to the resilience discourse, the article deduces that complexity of a system is a necessary condition for resilience because complex systems consist of agents that possess adaptive capacity, whereas simple systems consist of mere elements that cannot adapt to unexpected disruptions. The relation between complexity and resilience is multidimensional. Growing complexity leads to a growing need for resilience because the chances for severe, unexpected disruptions increase. The analysis of adaptive capacities revealed that systems and the agents they consist of can possess of specialized and general adaptive capacity. General adaptive capacity is the core feature of resilience because it enables systems to cope with unexpected disruptions. System design principles such as diversity within functional groups and redundancy help to increase general adaptive capacity. The same is true on the community level for social capital and on the individual level for disaster preparedness measures because they increase coping capacities independent of specific hazards.

复原力的概念与复杂性和适应能力有着内在联系。来自不同领域的学者对此达成了共识。不过,复原力、复杂性和适应能力之间的具体关系还需要更深入的理论分析。本文借助复杂适应系统(CAS)理论的假设对复原力进行分析,以更详细地回答两个问题:复原力与复杂性之间的关系是什么?适应能力如何促进复原力?通过将复杂适应系统理论的基本思想应用于复原力的论述,文章推断出系统的复杂性是复原力的必要条件,因为复杂系统由拥有适应能力的主体组成,而简单系统仅由无法适应意外干扰的要素组成。复杂性与复原力之间的关系是多方面的。复杂性的增加导致对复原力的需求增加,因为发生严重的意外破坏的可能性增加。对适应能力的分析表明,系统及其组成要素可以拥有专门适应能力和一般适应能力。一般适应能力是复原力的核心特征,因为它能使系统应对意想不到的破坏。系统设计原则,如功能组内的多样性和冗余,有助于提高一般适应能力。在社区层面的社会资本和个人层面的备灾措施也是如此,因为它们能提高应对能力,而不受具体危害的影响。
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引用次数: 0
Decoding derogation: The impact of environmental values and political ideology on the effect of persuasive message about recycle and reuse behaviors. 解码贬损:环境价值观和政治意识形态对有关回收和再利用行为的说服信息效果的影响。
IF 3 3区 医学 Q1 MATHEMATICS, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS Pub Date : 2024-11-10 DOI: 10.1111/risa.17674
Prerna Shah, Janet Z Yang

Although persuasive messages are designed to motivate individuals to engage in intended behaviors, they do not always work. Often, people follow previously established values and ideologies and dismiss persuasive messages. We examine how participants react to a persuasive message related to plastic pollution and how these reactions shape their willingness to recycle and reuse. Results indicate that environmental values and political ideology are associated with message derogation in distinct ways, which, in turn, affect risk perception, self-efficacy, and intention to recycle and reuse. Further, past behavior moderates the relationship between message derogation and perceived risk, but not the relationship between message derogation and self-efficacy. These results suggest that pre-existing values and ideologies play an important role in message derogation, a hitherto under-researched phenomenon that has key implications for self-reported behavioral change. Moreover, past behavior could serve as a powerful lever in steering risk perception and behavioral intent.

尽管劝说性信息的目的是激励个人参与预期行为,但它们并不总是奏效。通常,人们会遵循先前确立的价值观和意识形态,而对劝说性信息不屑一顾。我们研究了参与者对有关塑料污染的劝说信息的反应,以及这些反应如何影响他们回收和再利用的意愿。结果表明,环境价值观和政治意识形态以不同的方式与信息贬损相关联,进而影响风险认知、自我效能以及回收和再利用的意愿。此外,过去的行为会调节信息贬损与感知风险之间的关系,但不会调节信息贬损与自我效能之间的关系。这些结果表明,已有的价值观和意识形态在信息贬损中起着重要作用,而这一现象迄今为止还未得到充分研究,它对自我报告的行为改变有着重要影响。此外,过去的行为可以成为引导风险认知和行为意向的有力杠杆。
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引用次数: 0
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