Pub Date : 2023-04-23DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2202979
Aljaž Ščetinec, D. Klobčar, A. Nagode, T. Vuherer, D. Bračun, U. Trdan
This paper discusses directed energy deposition of 15-5 PH, which was successfully tailored with precipitation hardening (PH) to achieve the desired properties. Parametric analysis of solution annealing and aging at various time and temperature combinations was performed. Material characterisation was done in the as-deposited, solution annealed, and PH states. Investigations included microscopy, SEM/EDS, fractography, hardness, tensile, and impact toughness test. The as-deposited microstructure was composed of martensite laths along with delta ferrite. Optimisation of solution annealing was mandatory to achieve homogeneous austenite, which allowed PH. PH resulted in similar properties compared to conventionally produced steel. Peak aging resulted in 450 HV10 and an Rm of 1350 MPa, while the over-aged condition resulted in an impact toughness of over 77 J/cm2.
{"title":"Optimisation of precipitation hardening for 15-5 PH martensitic stainless steel produced by wire arc directed energy deposition","authors":"Aljaž Ščetinec, D. Klobčar, A. Nagode, T. Vuherer, D. Bračun, U. Trdan","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2202979","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2202979","url":null,"abstract":"This paper discusses directed energy deposition of 15-5 PH, which was successfully tailored with precipitation hardening (PH) to achieve the desired properties. Parametric analysis of solution annealing and aging at various time and temperature combinations was performed. Material characterisation was done in the as-deposited, solution annealed, and PH states. Investigations included microscopy, SEM/EDS, fractography, hardness, tensile, and impact toughness test. The as-deposited microstructure was composed of martensite laths along with delta ferrite. Optimisation of solution annealing was mandatory to achieve homogeneous austenite, which allowed PH. PH resulted in similar properties compared to conventionally produced steel. Peak aging resulted in 450 HV10 and an Rm of 1350 MPa, while the over-aged condition resulted in an impact toughness of over 77 J/cm2.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"558 - 568"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-04-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42886900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-04-18DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2198787
J. Elmer, G. Gibbs
An astigmatic electron beam with an ellipticity ratio of approximately 2:1 was examined using the Enhanced Modified Faraday Cup (EMFC) diagnostic to measure its properties and show how the power density distribution varies near the beam waist. Results show that the beam has two power density peaks, one on either side of the beam crossover point, resulting from different focal distances of the major and minor axes of the elliptical beam shape. Quantification of the beam properties was used to establish a depth-of-field where the beam diameter and peak power densities are relatively constant. For the 1 kW beam studied here, the depth-of-field measured approximately ±5 mm from the beam crossover point, illustrating how electron beam diagnostics can be used to identify process control limits for repeatable and reliable welds under non-ideal electron beam power density distribution conditions.
{"title":"Astigmatic electron beam propagation","authors":"J. Elmer, G. Gibbs","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2198787","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2198787","url":null,"abstract":"An astigmatic electron beam with an ellipticity ratio of approximately 2:1 was examined using the Enhanced Modified Faraday Cup (EMFC) diagnostic to measure its properties and show how the power density distribution varies near the beam waist. Results show that the beam has two power density peaks, one on either side of the beam crossover point, resulting from different focal distances of the major and minor axes of the elliptical beam shape. Quantification of the beam properties was used to establish a depth-of-field where the beam diameter and peak power densities are relatively constant. For the 1 kW beam studied here, the depth-of-field measured approximately ±5 mm from the beam crossover point, illustrating how electron beam diagnostics can be used to identify process control limits for repeatable and reliable welds under non-ideal electron beam power density distribution conditions.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"672 - 678"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-04-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44929582","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-04-16DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2200572
O. Ulkir, G. Akgun
The selection of parameters affects the surface roughness in the additive manufacturing process. This study aims to determine the optimal combination of input parameters for predicting and minimising the surface roughness of samples produced by Fused Deposition Modelling on a 3D printer using a cascade-forward neural network (CFNN) and genetic algorithm. Box–Behnken Design with four independent printing parameters at three levels is used, and 25 parts are fabricated with a 3D printer. Roughness tests are performed on the fabricated parts. Models generated by the hybrid algorithm achieve the best results for predicting and optimising surface roughness in 3D-printed parts. The surface roughness prediction accuracy of the trained CFNN with optimised parameters is more accurate compared to previous random test results.
{"title":"Predicting and optimising the surface roughness of additive manufactured parts using an artificial neural network model and genetic algorithm","authors":"O. Ulkir, G. Akgun","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2200572","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2200572","url":null,"abstract":"The selection of parameters affects the surface roughness in the additive manufacturing process. This study aims to determine the optimal combination of input parameters for predicting and minimising the surface roughness of samples produced by Fused Deposition Modelling on a 3D printer using a cascade-forward neural network (CFNN) and genetic algorithm. Box–Behnken Design with four independent printing parameters at three levels is used, and 25 parts are fabricated with a 3D printer. Roughness tests are performed on the fabricated parts. Models generated by the hybrid algorithm achieve the best results for predicting and optimising surface roughness in 3D-printed parts. The surface roughness prediction accuracy of the trained CFNN with optimised parameters is more accurate compared to previous random test results.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"548 - 557"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46829468","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-30DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2194730
A. Kar, Sachin Kumar, Kuldeep Singh
Aluminium and titanium are important structural metals; however, their joining is difficult because of different microstructural responses and intermetallic compounds (IMCs). The present work underlines the mechanisms associated with friction stir welding of pure Ti and Al alloy. The results show no visible defect, while multiple particles are consolidated in the stirred zone (SZ). Chemical composition across Al-Ti interfaces is different and dependent on location and particle size. This affirms intensive mechanical mixing and thermal diffusion of Al-Ti substrates and IMCs formation. The UTS and ductility of the Al-Ti joint are ∼73% and 37% higher than Al base metal, respectively. Deformation of Ti in SZ is responsible for phase evolution and joint formation with better joint characteristics.
{"title":"Mechanisms associated with material deformation, and microstructural evolution during friction stir welding of pure titanium and Al alloy","authors":"A. Kar, Sachin Kumar, Kuldeep Singh","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2194730","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2194730","url":null,"abstract":"Aluminium and titanium are important structural metals; however, their joining is difficult because of different microstructural responses and intermetallic compounds (IMCs). The present work underlines the mechanisms associated with friction stir welding of pure Ti and Al alloy. The results show no visible defect, while multiple particles are consolidated in the stirred zone (SZ). Chemical composition across Al-Ti interfaces is different and dependent on location and particle size. This affirms intensive mechanical mixing and thermal diffusion of Al-Ti substrates and IMCs formation. The UTS and ductility of the Al-Ti joint are ∼73% and 37% higher than Al base metal, respectively. Deformation of Ti in SZ is responsible for phase evolution and joint formation with better joint characteristics.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"662 - 671"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42933695","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-27DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2193460
N. Contuzzi, M. Rashkovets, G. Casalino
{"title":"Numerical and experimental investigation of probeless friction stir spot welding of a multilayer aluminium alloy compound","authors":"N. Contuzzi, M. Rashkovets, G. Casalino","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2193460","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2193460","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46484846","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-23DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2190264
Dong-Sheng Wu, Yaxin Xu, Wenya Li, Yang Yang, Kun Liu, Wenpeng Wan, Zhiwei Qi
ABSTRACT The deposition window of cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) a high-entropy alloy (HEA) was optimised by investigating processing parameters on deposition efficiency and porosity. The optimal parameters were obtained with helium as the driving gas, gas inlet temperature was at 700°C, and spray distance at 25 mm, at which the deposit was the thickest and of the lowest porosity. The type of driving gas is critical as it affects the porosity and deposition efficiency, and helium is required to obtain high-quality HEA deposits. With it, gas inlet temperature and spray distance have a minimal effect. Furthermore, higher gas temperature and moderate spraying distance were selected to increase particle deformation and reduce the effect of shock waves at the plate front.
{"title":"Process optimisation of cold spray additive manufacturing of FeCoNiCrMn high-entropy alloy","authors":"Dong-Sheng Wu, Yaxin Xu, Wenya Li, Yang Yang, Kun Liu, Wenpeng Wan, Zhiwei Qi","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2190264","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2190264","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The deposition window of cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) a high-entropy alloy (HEA) was optimised by investigating processing parameters on deposition efficiency and porosity. The optimal parameters were obtained with helium as the driving gas, gas inlet temperature was at 700°C, and spray distance at 25 mm, at which the deposit was the thickest and of the lowest porosity. The type of driving gas is critical as it affects the porosity and deposition efficiency, and helium is required to obtain high-quality HEA deposits. With it, gas inlet temperature and spray distance have a minimal effect. Furthermore, higher gas temperature and moderate spraying distance were selected to increase particle deformation and reduce the effect of shock waves at the plate front.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"540 - 547"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48202632","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-22DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2191957
N. Kumar, Sugumaran Minda Ramakrishnan, Kailasanathan Panchapakesan, Devarajan Subramaniam, M. Dowson, Abhishek Das
The micro-resistance spot welding is widely used for low-to-medium-volume applications due to its low cost, especially for cylindrical Lithium-ion cell-based modules. Using typical micro-resistance spot welding electrodes in a series configuration, two nuggets/welds are created in a single welding operation. As it is a contact joining process, productivity is limited. This paper developed a novel approach to enhance the productivity of micro-resistance spot welding, where four nuggets were produced instead of two nuggets in a single operation. The critical-to-quality criteria, including joint strength, microstructure, electrical resistance and temperature rise at joints, were demonstrated by comparing the existing and proposed approaches. A reduction in cycle time by up to 57% can be achieved by adopting the proposed approach while maintaining the weld quality.
{"title":"Utilising a novel multi-electrode approach for improving micro-resistance spot welding productivity for electric-mobility battery interconnects","authors":"N. Kumar, Sugumaran Minda Ramakrishnan, Kailasanathan Panchapakesan, Devarajan Subramaniam, M. Dowson, Abhishek Das","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2191957","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2191957","url":null,"abstract":"The micro-resistance spot welding is widely used for low-to-medium-volume applications due to its low cost, especially for cylindrical Lithium-ion cell-based modules. Using typical micro-resistance spot welding electrodes in a series configuration, two nuggets/welds are created in a single welding operation. As it is a contact joining process, productivity is limited. This paper developed a novel approach to enhance the productivity of micro-resistance spot welding, where four nuggets were produced instead of two nuggets in a single operation. The critical-to-quality criteria, including joint strength, microstructure, electrical resistance and temperature rise at joints, were demonstrated by comparing the existing and proposed approaches. A reduction in cycle time by up to 57% can be achieved by adopting the proposed approach while maintaining the weld quality.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"643 - 652"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44277740","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-20DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2189365
Libo Wang, Cheng-yang Hu, X. Wan, S. Zhou, R. Wei, C. Zhu, Guangqiang Li, K. Wu
ABSTRACT The impact of Nb contents on grain refinement in a simulated coarse-grained heated-affected zone (CGHAZ) in steels was investigated. The austenite grain grew in multiple directions and then impinged against each other during the α→γ transformation. Subsequently, austenite grains coarsened via the coalescence of small grains and boundary migration. With the increased Nb content, the austenite in CGHAZ became coarser due to the decreased quantity and increased size of Nb precipitates. Furthermore, the austenite decomposed into bainite during the cooling process. Compared with the low-Nb specimen, the crystallographic grain size in CGHAZ of high-Nb specimen is slightly coarser, relating to the coarser prior austenite grain. However, higher Nb content delays the bainite transformation start temperature, leading to multiple variants selection of bainite, increasing the refinement ratio.
{"title":"Impacts of Nb on grain refinement in a simulated coarse-grained-heat-affected-zone of ultra-high-strength steels","authors":"Libo Wang, Cheng-yang Hu, X. Wan, S. Zhou, R. Wei, C. Zhu, Guangqiang Li, K. Wu","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2189365","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2189365","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The impact of Nb contents on grain refinement in a simulated coarse-grained heated-affected zone (CGHAZ) in steels was investigated. The austenite grain grew in multiple directions and then impinged against each other during the α→γ transformation. Subsequently, austenite grains coarsened via the coalescence of small grains and boundary migration. With the increased Nb content, the austenite in CGHAZ became coarser due to the decreased quantity and increased size of Nb precipitates. Furthermore, the austenite decomposed into bainite during the cooling process. Compared with the low-Nb specimen, the crystallographic grain size in CGHAZ of high-Nb specimen is slightly coarser, relating to the coarser prior austenite grain. However, higher Nb content delays the bainite transformation start temperature, leading to multiple variants selection of bainite, increasing the refinement ratio.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"608 - 618"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45962109","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-16DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2189367
E. Chun, Yejin Jeong, Kyeong-Min Kim, S. Seo, H. Kang
Under completely suppressed constitutional liquation of MC carbide, unexplored 247LC superalloy single-mode fibre laser welds experience unexpected liquation cracking. These cracks continuously propagate from a solidification crack, particularly at highly misoriented and epitaxially grown solidification grain boundaries, and dominated by pipeline diffusion of impurities. Two novel metallurgical preconditions were identified which, if satisfied, ensure complete suppression of liquation cracking of 247LC superalloy welds. These preconditions are (i) the constitutional liquation of MC carbide at the heat-affected zone and (ii) pipeline diffusion of impurities at the fusion zone. It is also highly recommended that the welding is carried out in a single directionally solidified grain under scanning conditions, avoiding the formation of highly misoriented solidification grain boundaries.
{"title":"Liquation crack-free welding strategy for 247LC DS superalloy by control of pipeline diffusion via ultra-high-speed laser beam scanning","authors":"E. Chun, Yejin Jeong, Kyeong-Min Kim, S. Seo, H. Kang","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2189367","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2189367","url":null,"abstract":"Under completely suppressed constitutional liquation of MC carbide, unexplored 247LC superalloy single-mode fibre laser welds experience unexpected liquation cracking. These cracks continuously propagate from a solidification crack, particularly at highly misoriented and epitaxially grown solidification grain boundaries, and dominated by pipeline diffusion of impurities. Two novel metallurgical preconditions were identified which, if satisfied, ensure complete suppression of liquation cracking of 247LC superalloy welds. These preconditions are (i) the constitutional liquation of MC carbide at the heat-affected zone and (ii) pipeline diffusion of impurities at the fusion zone. It is also highly recommended that the welding is carried out in a single directionally solidified grain under scanning conditions, avoiding the formation of highly misoriented solidification grain boundaries.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"633 - 642"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48441420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-15DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2023.2187543
X. Yu, Haiyu Qiao, Yani Chen, Qian Li, Zhenyu Chen, Yayun Liu, Chuanyang Wang
The powder diameter affects the heat generation and further influences the quality of weldments when the MZA powder is used as laser-absorbents to carry out laser transmission welding (LTW). It is difficult to measure the temperature due to its extremely short duration. A mathematical model considering the multiple reflections of metal powder is established to predict heat generation. The mathematical model is verified and then used to describe the influence of line energy density and powder diameter on the temperature profile of the LTW process. The results demonstrate that the temperature from experiments and simulation are consistent. Therefore, the established model is suitable to predict the heat generation of metal powder laser-absorbents in the LTW process.
{"title":"An integrated methodology for estimating the interface temperature and effects of powder diameters in laser transmission welding process","authors":"X. Yu, Haiyu Qiao, Yani Chen, Qian Li, Zhenyu Chen, Yayun Liu, Chuanyang Wang","doi":"10.1080/13621718.2023.2187543","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2187543","url":null,"abstract":"The powder diameter affects the heat generation and further influences the quality of weldments when the MZA powder is used as laser-absorbents to carry out laser transmission welding (LTW). It is difficult to measure the temperature due to its extremely short duration. A mathematical model considering the multiple reflections of metal powder is established to predict heat generation. The mathematical model is verified and then used to describe the influence of line energy density and powder diameter on the temperature profile of the LTW process. The results demonstrate that the temperature from experiments and simulation are consistent. Therefore, the established model is suitable to predict the heat generation of metal powder laser-absorbents in the LTW process.","PeriodicalId":21729,"journal":{"name":"Science and Technology of Welding and Joining","volume":"28 1","pages":"589 - 597"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2023-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46394601","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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