Thermal Science and Engineering Progress最新文献

{"title":"Numerical simulation of the particle trajectory under the free vortex situation: A differential quadrature method","authors":"Sina Gouran","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104531","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104531","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Eliminating small, hazardous residuals in catalysts used in chemical reactions and reducing particle sedimentation, the present paper aims to employ a rotational procedure under the free vortex condition. After deriving the governing equations for particle motion in polar coordinates, the well-known Differential Quadrature Method (DQM) is applied to solve nonlinear equations. Reasonable agreement is observed between the obtained findings and existing studies. To investigate the role of different parameters on particle behavior under various operating conditions, parameters ranging from the particle’s initial radius to the angular velocity of the domain are varied. Increasing the drag-to-inertia coefficient from 0.06 to 0.24 results in a decrease in particle radial velocity by 14%. Changing the particle initial radius results in a 36% reduction in particle position. Moreover, an innovative insight into the tangential velocity of the particle is reported by varying parameters in the governing equations. The particle’s tangential velocity tends to increase with increasing particle initial radius, while it tends to decrease with increasing particle initial velocity. The effect of initial angular velocities on particle position, radial velocity, and tangential velocity is also remarkable.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104531"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146079383","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The macrostructure and stability of lean stratified methane-air flames","authors":"Mohammad Raghib Shakeel ,&nbsp;Zubairu Abubakar ,&nbsp;Esmail M.A. Mokheimer","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104542","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104542","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Stratified flames have received increased attention due to their enhanced flame stability and resilience to high turbulence. In the present study, the flame macrostructure, stability, and emissions of stratified diffusion (jet) flames produced using a dual annular burner are investigated. Stratified flames with a rich mixture in the inner annulus (stratification ratio, SR &gt; 1) were found to exhibit improved stability, resulting in delayed blowoff (higher lean blowoff limit (LBO)) compared to flames with the same mixture composition in both annuli (conventional premixed flames). These flames showed an improvement in the lean blowoff limit by 19–55% relative to non-stratified flames, allowing for the combustion of leaner mixtures and driving all the benefits that entail. This enhancement in stability is attributed to the diffusion of heat and radicals from the rich mixture at the centre of the flame outward toward the extra lean mixture from the outer annulus. Structurally more compact, shorter flames produced by the favoured stratified flames were observed from the Abel deconvoluted images captured using CH* chemiluminescence. However, stratified jet flames with a rich inner annulus also exhibited higher thermal NOx emissions due to the elevated temperatures in the rich inner mixture forming localized hot spots. One way to fully reap the benefits of the stratified flames is to enhance the mixing of the streams by the use of a swirler. Conversely, jet flames with a leaner inner annulus (SR &lt; 1) demonstrated poor stability with lifted flames but lower NOx emissions and poorer combustion efficiency. For cases where SR &lt; 1, there is an unrecovered loss of heat and radicals away from the flame from the outer richer stream, which explains the poorer stability and efficiency. In fact, the lean blowoff limit in these cases decreased only by 2–10% compared to non-stratified flames. Additionally, higher NOx emissions were observed at higher equivalence ratios, owing to the elevated temperatures in rich flames. However, as a consequence of better mixing and reduced hot spots, thermal NOx emissions were found to decrease with increasing Reynolds number.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104542"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146079363","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Intelligent computational modeling of Maxwell–Smoluchowski thermal slip effects under non-uniform heat sources using radial basis networks","authors":"Sana Ullah Saqib ,&nbsp;Abhishikta Das ,&nbsp;Muhammad Wajahat Anjum ,&nbsp;Yin-Tzer Shih ,&nbsp;Ali Akgül ,&nbsp;Fahad Sameer Alshammari","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104486","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104486","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The current article investigates the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to evaluate the Buongiorno thermal enhancement model with a Darcy–Forchheimer formulation (BTEM-IDFE). AI-driven radial basis function neural networks (RBFNNs) are employed to accurately forecast magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) nanofluid flow over a stretching boundary, accounting for entropy production and fluctuating fluid properties. RBFNNs are used to simulate and predict complex heat-transfer dynamics in such environments, yielding more accurate and efficient analyses than conventional numerical methods. We investigate the effects of the Maxwell slip velocity, the Smoluchowski slip temperature, and the Arrhenius activation energy. A synthetic dataset was generated via the Lobatto III-A computational integration approach. The proposed RBFNN algorithm is then applied to the obtained datasets, yielding outputs with negligible error that closely align with the numerical experiments across all model variants. A comprehensive graphical examination of liquid motion, entropy generation, concentration, and temperature distribution is conducted. Our findings indicate that applying the RBFNN to the proposed framework effectively captures the interactions and interdependencies among key parameters, including radiation parameters, temperature-dependent conductivity, porosity, velocity slip parameters, and thermophoresis effects, in relation to temperature and entropy rates. The efficacy of RBFNN is demonstrated through comprehensive experiments, including iterative convergence curves for mean squared error, optimization control measures, error distributions via histograms, and robust regression analysis.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104486"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145980644","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How well did the evaporative passive cooling blanket preserve fresh produce in Kenya, Uganda and Nigeria?","authors":"Daniel Onwude ,&nbsp;Sofia Felicioni ,&nbsp;Theresa Wittkamp ,&nbsp;Michael Omodara ,&nbsp;Opeyemi Akomolafe ,&nbsp;Thijs Defraeye","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104522","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104522","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study evaluates the effectiveness of evaporative passive cooling blankets (PCBs) in reducing postharvest losses and extending the shelf life of fruits and vegetables in Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria. Using locally available natural materials such as sawdust and charcoal, PCBs were deployed under diverse climatic conditions to assess their capacity for temperature reduction and humidity control. In Kenya, PCBs achieved temperature reductions of up to 10 °C and maintained relative humidity near 95 %, reducing postharvest losses of vegetables by up to 45 % and extending shelf life by 3–4 days. In Uganda, PCB application along the local tomato supply chain lowered average air temperatures by up to 2 °C, with peak reductions of up to 20 °C. This intervention extended tomato shelf life by 2 days and improved market outcomes, although performance was moderated by rainy-season conditions. In Nigeria, PCBs reduced average air temperature by 5 °C, increased relative humidity by 25 %, and decreased tomato weight loss and rot by 32 % and 20 %, respectively. Overall, the use of PCBs reduced postharvest losses by approximately 30 % across the three countries. These findings demonstrate a scalable, low-cost, electricity-free cooling solution suitable for smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. By validating PCB performance under real field conditions, this study highlights the potential of passive evaporative cooling technologies to enhance food preservation, reduce waste, and improve food security in resource-limited settings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104522"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146024410","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pyrolysis of industrial black liquor-derived lignin: iso-conversional based kinetic triplet evaluation, thermodynamic assessment, and predictive modeling using artificial neural network (ANN)","authors":"Nitin Meena ,&nbsp;Dipankar Saha ,&nbsp;Patit Paban Kundu","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104511","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104511","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the pyrolytic behaviour of lignin using an integrated kinetic and thermodynamic framework based on thermogravimetric data. Four <em>iso</em>-conversional models-Friedman, Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW), Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS), and Starink-were applied to monitor how the activation energy (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>Ea</mi></mrow><mi>α</mi></msub></math></span>) evolves throughout the conversion (<span><math><mi>α</mi></math></span> = 0.1–0.9) range. The non-uniform activation energy (<span><math><mrow><mi>Ea</mi></mrow></math></span>) pattern confirmed that lignin does not decompose through a single mechanism but undergoes a multi-stage transformation. Among the evaluated methods, KAS and Starink generated the most consistent <span><math><mrow><mi>Ea</mi></mrow></math></span> profiles. The associated pre-exponential factor (<span><math><mi>A</mi></math></span>) and thermodynamic parameters- enthalpy (<span><math><mrow><mi>Δ</mi><mi>H</mi></mrow></math></span>), Gibbs free energy (<span><math><mrow><mi>Δ</mi><mi>G</mi></mrow></math></span>), and entropy (<span><math><mrow><mi>Δ</mi><mi>S</mi></mrow></math></span>) further indicated that pyrolysis of lignin requires substantial energy input and proceeds in a non-spontaneous manner. A generalized masterplot interpretation revealed a clear shift in the dominant reaction mechanisms with conversion, transitioning sequentially through diffusion-controlled (D1), first-order (F1), and phase-boundary-controlled (R2) regimes, highlighting the coexistence of multiple kinetic pathways and the progressively evolving nature of lignin degradation. To complement the kinetic evaluation, an artificial neural network (ANN) was developed using temperature and heating rate as inputs and conversion as output to predict conversion behaviour. The ANN closely replicated the experimental conversion curves, demonstrating strong capability in capturing the nonlinear decomposition pattern with high predictive accuracy (<span><math><msup><mrow><mi>R</mi></mrow><mn>2</mn></msup></math></span> = 0.9998, mean square error = 2.2364 × 10⁻⁶) and reducing reliance on extensive experimental iterations. By coupling <em>iso</em>-conversional kinetic modelling with ANN-based prediction, this work delivers the first hybrid modelling framework specifically tailored to lignin derived from mixed-source industrial black liquor.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104511"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146023957","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study and validation of heat transfer correlations for plate-fin heat exchangers using cyclopentane as working fluid","authors":"Pengcheng Liu ,&nbsp;Qiyao Zuo ,&nbsp;Weijia Meng ,&nbsp;Gequn Shu ,&nbsp;Hua Tian ,&nbsp;Ligeng Li ,&nbsp;Yu Chen ,&nbsp;Xuan Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104489","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104489","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As a key component of the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) system, the heat exchanger is responsible for the conversion of thermal energy and directly affects the dynamic behavior of the system. Appropriate heat transfer correlations are essential for both heat exchanger design and dynamic behavior analysis. Owing to its high vapor pressure and temperature, cyclopentane is a promising working fluid for ORC systems. However, studies on heat transfer correlations for cyclopentane-based heat exchangers remain limited. This study conducted experiments on an ORC system. Based on steady-state experimental data, a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was applied to calibrate and validate heat transfer correlations for cyclopentane plate-fin heat exchangers, and applicable correlations was proposed. Further validation was performed using dynamic modeling combined with dynamic experimental data. The results indicate that the proposed correlations achieve high prediction accuracy, with mean relative deviations of cyclopentane outlet temperature below 7% and pressure deviations below 1.5% for both the plate-fin evaporator and recuperator. This work provides valuable guidance for the design and dynamic analysis of cyclopentane-based plate-fin heat exchangers.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104489"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146023958","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fracture evolution of granite under cyclic thermal shocks: effects of liquid nitrogen cooling on strength, toughness, and acoustic emission characteristics","authors":"Linchao Wang ,&nbsp;Yi Xue ,&nbsp;Lin Zhu ,&nbsp;Xiaoshan Cao ,&nbsp;Xue Li ,&nbsp;P.G. Ranjith","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104507","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104507","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Liquid nitrogen (LN₂)–assisted fracturing has emerged as a promising technique to enhance reservoir permeability and stimulate geothermal energy extraction. This study investigates the progressive degradation of granite under repeated thermal shocks, simulating geothermal conditions by subjecting samples to high-temperature heating followed by rapid LN₂ cooling, with cycles ranging from 0 to 20. Mechanical behavior was assessed by uniaxial compression (UCT), Brazilian splitting (BST), and three-point bending (TPBT) tests, with real-time acoustic emission (AE) monitoring employed to track fracture evolution. Results reveal substantial degradation in mechanical properties, with tensile strength and fracture toughness decreasing by up to 67.48 % and 65.51 %, respectively, after 20 thermal cycles. The extent of microstructural damage increases rapidly in the initial cycles, then plateaus after approximately 7–9 cycles, indicating a saturation point in damage development. AE analysis indicates a transition from brittle to more ductile behavior, manifested by increased AE activity, a rise in high-frequency components (&gt;700 kHz), and the development of complex fracture networks. The average frequency (AF)–rise time/amplitude (RA) distribution indicates a growing prevalence of shear-dominated microcracking as cycling progresses. These findings offer new insights into the micro-mechanical mechanisms activated by LN₂ cycling and highlight its effectiveness as a thermal stimulation strategy for enhancing the permeability of low-porosity crystalline rocks in geothermal applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104507"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146023961","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Systematic generation of flexible heat exchanger networks with minimum utility consumption","authors":"Ákos Orosz ,&nbsp;Jean Pimentel ,&nbsp;Bing Shen How ,&nbsp;Petar Sabev Varbanov ,&nbsp;Ferenc Friedler","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104490","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104490","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Heat exchanger network (HEN) synthesis is a topic of high importance, encompassing several solution approaches and problem aspects. One such aspect crucial to industrial applications is flexibility, since real systems often experience variations of certain parameters, e.g., inlet temperatures or flowrates. Decades of research have revealed numerous methods for analyzing the flexibility of a given heat exchanger network. Meanwhile, the synthesis of flexible HENs continued to prove to be a severely difficult task, especially since handling the parameter deviations should not compromise the high level of heat integration. This work introduces a novel direction for synthesizing flexible HENs by combining flexibility analysis methods with P-graph-based, exhaustive, combinatorial network generation. The method generates all feasible networks that satisfy both the structural criteria and the maximum energy recovery over the entire variation region, and presents them ordered by capital cost. This first iteration of the work focuses on variations in inlet stream temperatures. This allows proving the validity of the underlying concepts by generating HENs that achieve minimum utility consumption for the entire range of temperature variations. The capability to generate multiple suitable networks is demonstrated through a case study, where 429 feasible networks were generated, which are all capable of achieving maximum heat integration within the parameter variation region. For the best generated design options, a 4–6% increase in capital cost compared to the base case is sufficient to satisfy the flexibility requirements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104490"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145980498","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical investigation of heat transfer and flow characteristics in eccentrically twisted oval tubes","authors":"Jie Ma ,&nbsp;Chuanxiang Gong ,&nbsp;Shuai Wang ,&nbsp;Haidong Xu ,&nbsp;Shuai Yin ,&nbsp;Hao Peng","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104505","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104505","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To overcome the performance limitations of traditional twisted oval tubes, the innovative design of eccentrically twisted oval tubes is proposed by introducing the asymmetric geometric disturbances through offsetting the twisted axis. This asymmetric structure can enhance the intensity of the secondary flow and expand the influence area of the secondary flow, thus effectively enhancing heat transfer in the eccentrically twisted oval tube. Based on the <em>k-ω</em> turbulence model, the influences of eccentric parameters on the thermal–hydraulic performance are numerically investigated through the analysis of temperature, pressure, and velocity fields as well as their synergistic interactions. In addition, correlations for the Nusselt number and friction factor are established. The results indicate that the performance evaluation criteria increase with both the eccentric angle and eccentric distance, reaching their maximum values in the direction of the minor axis. Specifically, when the eccentric distance is 7 mm, the Nusselt number increases by 38.12 %, and the performance evaluation criteria value reaches 1.21. This improvement can be attributed to the wall-attached vortex structures induced by the eccentricity of the twisted axis. Simultaneously, strong lateral secondary flows are generated in the eccentric direction, resulting in a 50 % increase in flow intensity compared to that in standard twisted oval tubes. These secondary flows decrease the synergy angle of velocity field and temperature gradient, thereby further contributing to the heat transfer enhancement of the eccentrically twisted oval tubes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104505"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145980495","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Thermo-mechanical life assessment of solar central receivers: Comparison of coarse and fine grid discretisations","authors":"M. Laporte-Azcué,&nbsp;D. Pardillos-Pobo,&nbsp;M.R. Rodríguez-Sánchez,&nbsp;D. Santana","doi":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104491","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tsep.2026.104491","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper deals with the thermomechanical analysis of a molten-salt tubular central receiver in a solar power tower plant using three discretization levels. A coarse-grid model (CGM) considers one representative tube per panel; a fine-grid model (FGM) is run first with the CGM mass-flow setpoint and then with adjusted mass flow to achieve a 565°C outlet. We compare mass flows, temperatures and elastic stresses on the spring equinox, summer solstice, and winter solstice. They serve to assess the receiver durability as equivalent operating days (EODs) resulting from creep-fatigue damage.</div><div>The CGM systematically overpredicts the heat transfer fluid flow that the receiver can heat up to 565°C compared to the FGM. Moreover, while panel-average temperatures are captured reasonably, the CGM misses tube-to-tube gradients, and yields higher tube temperatures overall, which amplifies elastic stress error from around + 30% to −15%. The largest error occurs at mid-panel height, which is typically the critical spot durability-wise. For large storage sizes (∼30000 tn), the CGM underestimates panel 1 life in 7.27 years versus the FGM with adjusted flow rate, suggesting unnecessary repairs. In the remaining panels the CGM overpredicts durability, risking earlier-than-predicted failures. In the most concerning panels (2–4) it is up to 2 years. These discrepancies arise from the interplay among temperature, elastic–plastic stress, and stress relaxation. Overall, tube- and panel-level variability undermines generalization from a single representative tube. If a CGM must be used, panel-specific safeguards are recommended; otherwise, the FGM with adjusted flow provides more credible life and cost forecasts.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23062,"journal":{"name":"Thermal Science and Engineering Progress","volume":"70 ","pages":"Article 104491"},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145980635","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}