Despite having been underlined as contrary to established fact, the myth that there is a causal link between Protestantism and the emergence of capitalism persists in the popuar imagination as well as the academy. This article illustrates where Max Weber’s theory contradicts all the available historical evidence concerning the emergence of free economies in the West. It shows not only where Weber’s theory is unable to account for the emergence of capitalist practices and thinking before the Reformation, but also the manner in which capitalism’s development in the post-reformation era contradicts Weber’s theory. It then turns to illustrating the ways in which medieval Catholicism contributed to the emergence of the cultural and institutional prerequisites of postReformation capitalism, and the manner in which post-Reformation political and religious developments contribute to the emergence of merchantilist and protectionist practices that inhibited economic liberty. Bien qu’ayant été considéré comme contraire au fait établi, le mythe selon lequel il y aurait un lien causal entre le Protestantisme et l’émergence du capitalisme persiste dans l’imagination populaire aussi bien que dans le corps académique. Cet article illustre où la théorie de Max Weber est en contradiction avec toutes les évidences historiques disponibles concernant l’émergence des économies capitalistes en Occident. Il montre non seulement où la théorie de Weber est incapable de prendre en compte l’émergence de pratiques capitalistes et des pensées avant la Réforme, mais aussi la manière dont le développement du capitalisme durant la période suivant la Réforme contredit la théorie de Weber. Il illustre ensuite les manières dont le catholicisme médiéval contribua à l’émergence des pré-requis culturels et institutionnels au capitalisme de l’ère qui suivit la Réforme, et la manière à travers laquelle les développements politiques et religieux postérieurs à la Réforme contribuèrent à l’émergence de pratiques mercantilistes et protectionnistes qui inhibèrent la liberté économique.
尽管已经被强调为与既定事实相反，新教和资本主义的出现之间存在因果关系的神话仍然存在于大众和学术界的想象中。这篇文章阐明了马克斯·韦伯的理论与所有有关西方自由经济出现的现有历史证据相矛盾的地方。这不仅说明了韦伯的理论在哪些方面无法解释宗教改革前资本主义实践和思想的出现，也说明了宗教改革后资本主义的发展与韦伯的理论之间的矛盾。然后，它转向说明中世纪天主教如何促成后改革资本主义的文化和制度先决条件的出现，以及后改革政治和宗教发展如何促成抑制经济自由的商人主义和保护主义行为的出现。“我认为，如果你认为自己是一个成功的人，那么你就会认为自己是一个成功的人”，“我认为自己是一个成功的人”，“我认为自己是成功的人”。Cet(中央东部东京)文章illustre或者洛杉矶德马克斯·韦伯理论是矛盾的证据historiques这concernant l 'emergence des经济体欧美资本主义。“我不能解决问题où”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”“我不能解决问题”我要说明的是，在资本主义的背景下，交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换系统的交换交换。
{"title":"End of a Myth: Max Weber, Capitalism, and the Medieval Order","authors":"Samuel Gregg","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1091","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1091","url":null,"abstract":"Despite having been underlined as contrary to established fact, the myth that there is a causal link between Protestantism and the emergence of capitalism persists in the popuar imagination as well as the academy. This article illustrates where Max Weber’s theory contradicts all the available historical evidence concerning the emergence of free economies in the West. It shows not only where Weber’s theory is unable to account for the emergence of capitalist practices and thinking before the Reformation, but also the manner in which capitalism’s development in the post-reformation era contradicts Weber’s theory. It then turns to illustrating the ways in which medieval Catholicism contributed to the emergence of the cultural and institutional prerequisites of postReformation capitalism, and the manner in which post-Reformation political and religious developments contribute to the emergence of merchantilist and protectionist practices that inhibited economic liberty. Bien qu’ayant été considéré comme contraire au fait établi, le mythe selon lequel il y aurait un lien causal entre le Protestantisme et l’émergence du capitalisme persiste dans l’imagination populaire aussi bien que dans le corps académique. Cet article illustre où la théorie de Max Weber est en contradiction avec toutes les évidences historiques disponibles concernant l’émergence des économies capitalistes en Occident. Il montre non seulement où la théorie de Weber est incapable de prendre en compte l’émergence de pratiques capitalistes et des pensées avant la Réforme, mais aussi la manière dont le développement du capitalisme durant la période suivant la Réforme contredit la théorie de Weber. Il illustre ensuite les manières dont le catholicisme médiéval contribua à l’émergence des pré-requis culturels et institutionnels au capitalisme de l’ère qui suivit la Réforme, et la manière à travers laquelle les développements politiques et religieux postérieurs à la Réforme contribuèrent à l’émergence de pratiques mercantilistes et protectionnistes qui inhibèrent la liberté économique.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"73 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122316491","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The main characteristic of the French local tax system undoubtedly resides in a convoluted structure which impedes any progress in the development of tax competition between local authorities. On the contrary, recent legislative evolutions make obvious a trend of recentralization of the French local finance system illustrated by the fact the State is presently the first tax contributor to the local authorities budgets. As a result, it becomes blatant that any new competence transfer to the local authorities without setting up an explicit financing scheme for these transfers will put an end to the local authorities autonomy.Lensemble du système fiscal local français est caractérisé par une structure complexe peu propice au développement de la concurrence fiscale entre collectivités locales. Bien au contraire, les évolutions récentes témoignent dun phénomène de recentralisation des finances locales françaises par lequel lEtat devient le premier contributeur à la fiscalité des collectivités locales. Au total, il semble évident que tout accroissement de transfert de compétences non accompagné dune remise à plat du système fiscal local français ne peut conduire à terme quà la fin de lautonomie des collectivités locales.
毫无疑问，法国地方税收制度的主要特点在于其复杂的结构，这阻碍了地方当局之间税收竞争的发展。相反，最近的立法演变表明了法国地方财政制度重新集中的趋势，这一事实表明，国家目前是地方当局预算的第一个税收贡献者。因此，显而易见的是，任何向地方当局转移新的权限而不为这些转移制定明确的融资计划，都将终止地方当局的自主权。L ' ensemble du system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system system。与此相反的是，所有的薪金薪金都是由薪金薪金决定的，所有的薪金薪金都是由薪金薪金决定的，所有的薪金薪金都是由薪金薪金决定的。总而言之，将合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并合并。
{"title":"The Recentralization of the French Local Finance System","authors":"Olivier Verheyde","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1110","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1110","url":null,"abstract":"The main characteristic of the French local tax system undoubtedly resides in a convoluted structure which impedes any progress in the development of tax competition between local authorities. On the contrary, recent legislative evolutions make obvious a trend of recentralization of the French local finance system illustrated by the fact the State is presently the first tax contributor to the local authorities budgets. As a result, it becomes blatant that any new competence transfer to the local authorities without setting up an explicit financing scheme for these transfers will put an end to the local authorities autonomy.Lensemble du système fiscal local français est caractérisé par une structure complexe peu propice au développement de la concurrence fiscale entre collectivités locales. Bien au contraire, les évolutions récentes témoignent dun phénomène de recentralisation des finances locales françaises par lequel lEtat devient le premier contributeur à la fiscalité des collectivités locales. Au total, il semble évident que tout accroissement de transfert de compétences non accompagné dune remise à plat du système fiscal local français ne peut conduire à terme quà la fin de lautonomie des collectivités locales.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116943814","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper applies Israel Kirzner’s theory of entrepreneurship and the Austrian theory of capital to the theory of the firm. In particular, it explores why some firms are better able to react to exogenous change than others, especially when that change is negative. The argument is that firms that have structures of physical and human capital that are more “flexible” are better able to adapt to exogenous change. In this context, flexibility is understood in terms of Lachmann’s notions of the substituability and complementarity of capital. Flexible capital structures are ones in which elements can be more easily substituted for. Such flexibility carries a trade-off in terms of lost productivity from using less specific (and less highly complementary) capital, but it is argued that this trade-off might be worthwhile in an environment of heightened structural uncertainty. Cet article applique la théorie entrepreneuriale d’Israel Kirzner et la théorie Autrichienne du capital à la théorie de la firme. Plus particulièrement, il explore pourquoi certaines entreprises sont plus à même de réagir face à des changements exogènes que d’autres, spécialement quand ces changements sont négatifs. L’argument est que les firmes qui possèdent des structures de capital physique et humain plus “flexibles” sont plus aptes à s’adapter à des changements exogènes. Dans ce contexte, la flexibilité est comprise au sens lachmanien de substituabilité et de complémentarité du capital. Les structures de capital flexibles sont celles dans lesquelles la substitution entre les composantes est plus aisée. Une telle flexibilité entraîne un compromis en termes de perte de productivité découlant d’un usage de capitaux moins spécifiques (et moins complémentaires), mais il est suggéré que ce compromis en vaut la peine dans un environnement encore plus structurellement incertain.
{"title":"Entrepreneurship, Exogenous Change and the Flexibility of Capital","authors":"S. Horwitz","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1048","url":null,"abstract":"This paper applies Israel Kirzner’s theory of entrepreneurship and the Austrian theory of capital to the theory of the firm. In particular, it explores why some firms are better able to react to exogenous change than others, especially when that change is negative. The argument is that firms that have structures of physical and human capital that are more “flexible” are better able to adapt to exogenous change. In this context, flexibility is understood in terms of Lachmann’s notions of the substituability and complementarity of capital. Flexible capital structures are ones in which elements can be more easily substituted for. Such flexibility carries a trade-off in terms of lost productivity from using less specific (and less highly complementary) capital, but it is argued that this trade-off might be worthwhile in an environment of heightened structural uncertainty. Cet article applique la théorie entrepreneuriale d’Israel Kirzner et la théorie Autrichienne du capital à la théorie de la firme. Plus particulièrement, il explore pourquoi certaines entreprises sont plus à même de réagir face à des changements exogènes que d’autres, spécialement quand ces changements sont négatifs. L’argument est que les firmes qui possèdent des structures de capital physique et humain plus “flexibles” sont plus aptes à s’adapter à des changements exogènes. Dans ce contexte, la flexibilité est comprise au sens lachmanien de substituabilité et de complémentarité du capital. Les structures de capital flexibles sont celles dans lesquelles la substitution entre les composantes est plus aisée. Une telle flexibilité entraîne un compromis en termes de perte de productivité découlant d’un usage de capitaux moins spécifiques (et moins complémentaires), mais il est suggéré que ce compromis en vaut la peine dans un environnement encore plus structurellement incertain.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122081549","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Central to Amartya Sen's understanding and defense of political orders that promote equality is his appeal to human capabilities. However, he fails to provide a basis for their selection, weighting, and value. Moreover, the account of ethical reasoning (“public reasoning") by which he does attempt to respond to basic challenges is highly problematic. It not only conflicts with a view of human flourishing that is individualized, agent-relative, and self-directed but also offers neither justification for nor principled limitation of state imposed solutions.
{"title":"Retreat from Liberalism: Human Capabilities and Public Reasoning","authors":"Douglas B. Rasmussen, D. J. Den Uyl","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1220","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1220","url":null,"abstract":"Central to Amartya Sen's understanding and defense of political orders that promote equality is his appeal to human capabilities. However, he fails to provide a basis for their selection, weighting, and value. Moreover, the account of ethical reasoning (“public reasoning\") by which he does attempt to respond to basic challenges is highly problematic. It not only conflicts with a view of human flourishing that is individualized, agent-relative, and self-directed but also offers neither justification for nor principled limitation of state imposed solutions.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125470350","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Luigi Taparelli, S.J. (1793-1862) sought to "baptize" classical liberal economic thinking by re-establishing it on the basis of a modernized Aristotelico-Thomistic conception of human nature and society. With its flawed anthropology, Taparelli argued that economics as it stood was illequipped to understand the actual character of socio-economic problems and therefore dangerous as an instrument of public policy. Applying his principles of solidarity, subsidiarity, just legal order and piety, Taparelli drew attention to the relationship of moral-cultural factors to economic life and described the limits of government intervention subject to maximum regard for personal liberty."Le Père Luigi Taparelli (1793- 1862) chercha à « baptiser » la pensée économique libérale classique en la fondant sur une conception Aristotelico- Thomiste modernisée de la nature humaine et de la société. Taparelli avançait quavec son anthropologie erronée, la science économique de lépoque était mal équipée pour comprendre le caractère des problèmes socio-économiques et de plus dangereuse en tant quinstrument de politique publique. En se fondant sur les principes quil avait élaborés, ceux de solidarité, de subsidiarité, dordre judiciaire juste et de pitié, Taparelli attira lattention sur la relation des facteurs moraux et culturels de la vie économique et décrivit les limites de lintervention étatique à laune de lespace maximum de liberté personnelle.
Luigi Taparelli, S.J.(1793-1862)试图通过在现代亚里士多德-托马斯的人性和社会概念的基础上重建古典自由主义经济思想来“洗礼”古典自由主义经济思想。塔帕雷利认为，由于人类学的缺陷，目前的经济学无法理解社会经济问题的实际特征，因此作为公共政策的工具是危险的。Taparelli运用他的团结、辅助、公正的法律秩序和虔诚的原则，将注意力集中在道德文化因素与经济生活的关系上，并描述了政府干预在最大限度地尊重个人自由的前提下的局限性。路易吉·塔帕雷利(1793- 1862):“我的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲，你的父亲。”瞿Taparelli avancait用儿子anthropologie erronee拉科学摘要de l时代是mal equipee倒理解勒特征问题socio-economiques et de + dangereuse en瞿如此更仪器de政治publique。他说:“我的原则是，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人，我将照顾所有的人。
{"title":"Luigi Taparelli's Natural Law Approach to Social Economics","authors":"Thomas C. Behr","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1093","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1093","url":null,"abstract":"Luigi Taparelli, S.J. (1793-1862) sought to \"baptize\" classical liberal economic thinking by re-establishing it on the basis of a modernized Aristotelico-Thomistic conception of human nature and society. With its flawed anthropology, Taparelli argued that economics as it stood was illequipped to understand the actual character of socio-economic problems and therefore dangerous as an instrument of public policy. Applying his principles of solidarity, subsidiarity, just legal order and piety, Taparelli drew attention to the relationship of moral-cultural factors to economic life and described the limits of government intervention subject to maximum regard for personal liberty.\"Le Père Luigi Taparelli (1793- 1862) chercha à « baptiser » la pensée économique libérale classique en la fondant sur une conception Aristotelico- Thomiste modernisée de la nature humaine et de la société. Taparelli avançait quavec son anthropologie erronée, la science économique de lépoque était mal équipée pour comprendre le caractère des problèmes socio-économiques et de plus dangereuse en tant quinstrument de politique publique. En se fondant sur les principes quil avait élaborés, ceux de solidarité, de subsidiarité, dordre judiciaire juste et de pitié, Taparelli attira lattention sur la relation des facteurs moraux et culturels de la vie économique et décrivit les limites de lintervention étatique à laune de lespace maximum de liberté personnelle.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"111 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117254380","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The aim of this paper is both to use Kindleberger’s thesis to analyse banking crashes of the Middle Age and to give proof of whether the medieval banks do or do not raise the same theoretical analysis as the modern banks. This is of importance, because the theories that are invoked by Kindleberger concern banks very different from the medieval banks. If the financial instability of the 14th century is similar to that of the 19th or the 20th century, this leads to amend the impact and generality of Kindleberger’s instability model. L’objet de cet article est d’utiliser la théorie de Kindleberger pour analyser les krachs bancaires du Moyen Age et vérifier si les banques médiévales relèvent ou non du même appareil théorique que les banques modernes. Cela représente un enjeu important car les banques médiévales sont très différentes de celles qu’étudie Kindleberger. Si l’instabilité financière du XIVe siècle est comparable à celle des XIXe et XXe siècles, cela nous amène à reconsidérer l’impact et la généralité du modèle de Kindleberger.
这篇论文的目的是用kindleberger的论文来分析中世纪的银行崩溃，并证明中世纪的银行是否与现代银行进行了相同的理论分析。This is the theories of并不重要,因为banks that are by金德尔伯格concern法庭上堡different from the medieval banks。如果14世纪的金融不稳定性与19世纪或20世纪的金融不稳定性相似，这就会导致kindleberger的不稳定性模型的影响和普遍性的修正。本文的目的是利用金德尔伯格的理论来分析中世纪的银行崩溃，并检验中世纪银行是否与现代银行属于同一理论框架。这是一个重要的问题，因为中世纪的银行与金德尔伯格研究的银行非常不同。如果14世纪的金融不稳定可以与19世纪和20世纪的金融不稳定相媲美，这就需要重新考虑金德尔伯格模型的影响和普遍性。
{"title":"Banking Crashes of the Middle Age in Italy: A Minsky-Kindleberger Theory Case?","authors":"François Seurot","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1074","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1074","url":null,"abstract":"The aim of this paper is both to use Kindleberger’s thesis to analyse banking crashes of the Middle Age and to give proof of whether the medieval banks do or do not raise the same theoretical analysis as the modern banks. This is of importance, because the theories that are invoked by Kindleberger concern banks very different from the medieval banks. If the financial instability of the 14th century is similar to that of the 19th or the 20th century, this leads to amend the impact and generality of Kindleberger’s instability model. L’objet de cet article est d’utiliser la théorie de Kindleberger pour analyser les krachs bancaires du Moyen Age et vérifier si les banques médiévales relèvent ou non du même appareil théorique que les banques modernes. Cela représente un enjeu important car les banques médiévales sont très différentes de celles qu’étudie Kindleberger. Si l’instabilité financière du XIVe siècle est comparable à celle des XIXe et XXe siècles, cela nous amène à reconsidérer l’impact et la généralité du modèle de Kindleberger.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"74 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129440829","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The fortunes and misfortunes of Shylock and Antonio are pervaded with economic and legal ideas. Both characters tend to overlap and confuse in several dimensions–the most celebrated one is to believe that the Jew is the merchant–and are alternatively victim and victimizer. The analysis of the play focusing in money and contract, economics and the law, market and morality, allows us to delve into the nuances of one of the most engaging characters in the history of literature and to ponder the classical liberal message of justice and charity.
{"title":"Money and Contract in The Merchant of Venice","authors":"Carlos Rodríguez Braun","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1219","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1219","url":null,"abstract":"The fortunes and misfortunes of Shylock and Antonio are pervaded with economic and legal ideas. Both characters tend to overlap and confuse in several dimensions–the most celebrated one is to believe that the Jew is the merchant–and are alternatively victim and victimizer. The analysis of the play focusing in money and contract, economics and the law, market and morality, allows us to delve into the nuances of one of the most engaging characters in the history of literature and to ponder the classical liberal message of justice and charity.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"39 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124999230","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The development of collective beliefs via informational and reputational cascades represents a way of shortcircuiting the difficulties related to the collective action of latent groups (the problem of co-operation amongst a large group in the absence of coercion) to ensure the promotion of their particular interests. This essay focuses on the protection of consumers, whose quality of the life has never been so high, despite the prevalence of hazardous products.Rationally ignorant individuals form their opinions by conforming to those of others; this can take two forms, either by consolidating their personal judgement or their private information (informational cascades ), or by pure conformist behaviour. It may even be that such individuals rarely hesitate, if necessary, to admit beliefs that they do not actually hold in order to avoid being ostracised by others (reputational cascades). Latent groups activists manipulate the process of formation of beliefs in order to bring about a predominant opinion on any given issue. Armed with the asset of the prevailing opinion, pressure can be exerted upon politicians in view of obtaining regulations and subsidies which would protect the latent group of which they claim to be the representatives.This is the new face of collective action where the politically correct replaces physical violence or the strike. This way of shaping public opinion could have a beneficial outcome if it were not founded on erroneous information or led to a violation of individual rights due to regulation. However, this not the case. The very leitmotif of this method is, in fact, to bring about regulation which, by definition, violates private lives. In any case, it is dangerous because the manipulation of public opinion by these activists implies an intensive use of rhetoric, distorting the perception of risk, which in turn involves the circulation of misleading information in order to create a cascade modifying public opinion in favor of the proposed regulation, rather than informing the public on the potential risks and letting them insure freely against it if they judge to do so. But for the activist the end justifies the means. Thus, this manipulation of public opinion is a danger to the notion of modern democracy, already so sensitive to the pertaining to the majority.La formation des croyances par le biais des cascades dinformation et de réputation est un moyen de courtcircuiter les difficultés liées à laction collective des groupes latents (le problème de la coopération au sein dun grand groupe en absence de coercition) pour assurer la promotion de leurs intérêts particuliers. Dans le cadre de cet essai est analysée la protection des consommateurs, dont la valeur de la vie est élevée, contre les produits à risque.Les individus rationnellement ignorants forment leurs opinions en se conformant aux croyances des autres, soit pour conforter leur jugement personnel ou leurs informations privées (cascades dinformation
通过信息和声誉级联的集体信念的发展代表了一种绕过与“潜在群体”的集体行动相关的困难的方式(在没有强制的情况下，一个大群体之间的合作问题)，以确保促进他们的特殊利益。这篇文章的重点是保护消费者，他们的生活质量从来没有这么高，尽管危险产品的盛行。理性无知的人通过顺从他人的观点来形成自己的观点;这可以采取两种形式，要么是通过巩固他们的个人判断或他们的私人信息(信息级联)，要么是纯粹的从众行为。如果有必要，这些人甚至会毫不犹豫地承认他们实际上并不持有的信念，以避免被他人排斥(声誉级联)。“潜在团体”的积极分子操纵信念的形成过程，以便在任何特定问题上形成主导意见。有了主流舆论这一资产的武装，政客们就可以施加压力，以获得保护“潜在群体”的法规和补贴，而他们声称自己是“潜在群体”的代表。这是集体行动的新面貌，“政治正确”取代了身体暴力或罢工。如果这种塑造公众舆论的方式不是建立在错误信息的基础上，也不是由于管制而导致对个人权利的侵犯，那么这种方式可能会产生有益的结果。然而，事实并非如此。事实上，这种方法的主旨是制定规章制度，而这种规章制度从定义上讲是侵犯私人生活的。无论如何，这都是危险的，因为这些激进分子对公众舆论的操纵意味着大量使用修辞，扭曲对风险的感知，这反过来又涉及误导性信息的传播，以创造一个有利于拟议监管的级联修改公众舆论，而不是告知公众潜在的风险，并让他们自由投保，如果他们判断这样做的话。但对于激进主义者来说，目的证明手段是正当的。因此，这种对公众舆论的操纵是对现代民主概念的一种危险，现代民主已经对大多数人的关系如此敏感。1 .信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成，即信息的形成。不要用“保护”来代替“保护”，用“保护”来代替“保护”，用“保护”来代替“保护”，减少产品的风险。个人理性无知的人对法律意见的认同是对法律的认同，对法律判断人员的认同是对法律信息的认同，对法律判断人员的认同是对法律信息的认同，对法律的认同是对法律的认同。Il se peut même que les individual n ' s hasamsient pas, s ' le le faxous croyances, pour ne pas être frappsamsid ' ostracisme par les res (cascades de resamictation)。那些活动分子和“潜在群体”操纵着形成过程，他们的意见主要集中在自由的组织中，他们的意见主要集中在自由的组织中。恩典这个意见majoritaire ils说是pouvoir做压力欧珀莱des hommes obtenir倒一个国际政治et des他们资助一个清洁的利润在但de门生legroupe潜伏不该ils pretendent可能les representants。他的作品《新形成的行动集体》où《政治正确》取代了《暴力体格》和《愤怒的皮奎特》。关于个人的权利和个人的权利受到侵犯的问题，请参照下列原则:1 .公众意见;1 .个人意见;3 .个人意见;3 .个人意见;3 .个人意见;3 .个人意见;3 .个人意见;或者，我不认为这是错误的。对于公平的薪金，最公平的调整是将薪金调整为公平的薪金，而不是将薪金调整为公平的薪金。这是一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为，一种非常危险的行为。对数据的操纵是危险的，而对数据的操纵是危险的，对数据的操纵是明智的，对数据的操纵是明智的。
{"title":"Collective Belief Formation and the Politically Correct Concerning Information on Risk Behaviour","authors":"B. Lemennicier","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1032","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1032","url":null,"abstract":"The development of collective beliefs via informational and reputational cascades represents a way of shortcircuiting the difficulties related to the collective action of latent groups (the problem of co-operation amongst a large group in the absence of coercion) to ensure the promotion of their particular interests. This essay focuses on the protection of consumers, whose quality of the life has never been so high, despite the prevalence of hazardous products.Rationally ignorant individuals form their opinions by conforming to those of others; this can take two forms, either by consolidating their personal judgement or their private information (informational cascades ), or by pure conformist behaviour. It may even be that such individuals rarely hesitate, if necessary, to admit beliefs that they do not actually hold in order to avoid being ostracised by others (reputational cascades). Latent groups activists manipulate the process of formation of beliefs in order to bring about a predominant opinion on any given issue. Armed with the asset of the prevailing opinion, pressure can be exerted upon politicians in view of obtaining regulations and subsidies which would protect the latent group of which they claim to be the representatives.This is the new face of collective action where the politically correct replaces physical violence or the strike. This way of shaping public opinion could have a beneficial outcome if it were not founded on erroneous information or led to a violation of individual rights due to regulation. However, this not the case. The very leitmotif of this method is, in fact, to bring about regulation which, by definition, violates private lives. In any case, it is dangerous because the manipulation of public opinion by these activists implies an intensive use of rhetoric, distorting the perception of risk, which in turn involves the circulation of misleading information in order to create a cascade modifying public opinion in favor of the proposed regulation, rather than informing the public on the potential risks and letting them insure freely against it if they judge to do so. But for the activist the end justifies the means. Thus, this manipulation of public opinion is a danger to the notion of modern democracy, already so sensitive to the pertaining to the majority.La formation des croyances par le biais des cascades dinformation et de réputation est un moyen de courtcircuiter les difficultés liées à laction collective des groupes latents (le problème de la coopération au sein dun grand groupe en absence de coercition) pour assurer la promotion de leurs intérêts particuliers. Dans le cadre de cet essai est analysée la protection des consommateurs, dont la valeur de la vie est élevée, contre les produits à risque.Les individus rationnellement ignorants forment leurs opinions en se conformant aux croyances des autres, soit pour conforter leur jugement personnel ou leurs informations privées (cascades dinformation","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"19 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123446419","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This essay offers some lessons from the history of the United States Constitution for constitutions for emerging democracies in Eastern Europe. The United States Constitution declined in efficacy over time because special interests eroded its restraints on rent-seeking. This essay seeks to consider solutions to prevent constitutional decline. It suggests that since special interests will try to dissolve constitutional restraints, the original constitution should itself contain trigger rulers imposing new restraints when certain events occur that suggest the old restraints are weakening. Thus in this essay I suggest creating constitutional provisions to spring into effect when the consequences of constitutional decline become apparent in the polity.Cet article met en avant quelques leçons puisées dans lhistoire de la constitution américaine pour les constitutions des démocraties naissantes de lEurope Orientale. La constitution des Etats-Unis a perdu de son efficacité au fil du temps parce que les intérêts particuliers ont entamé les contraintes qui pesaient sur les activités de recherche de rente. Cet article essaye denvisager des solutions pour contrecarrer le déclin constitutionnel. Il suggère que, puisque les intérêts particuliers essayent de dissoudre les contraintes constitutionnelles, la constitution devrait inclure, à lorigine même, des règles dactivation imposant de nouvelles contraintes quand certains évènements qui surviennent révèlent linsuffisance des contraintes antérieures. Ainsi, dans cet article, lauteur suggère la création de dispositions constitutionnelles qui sont activées quand les conséquences du déclin constitutionnel sont apparentes au niveau politique.
本文从美国宪法的历史中为东欧新兴民主国家的宪法提供了一些借鉴。美国宪法的效力随着时间的推移而下降，因为特殊利益侵蚀了它对寻租的限制。本文试图探讨防止宪政衰落的解决方案。它认为，既然特殊利益集团会试图解除宪法限制，那么，当某些事件表明旧的限制正在减弱时，原始宪法本身就应该包含触发统治者施加新的限制的内容。因此，在本文中，我建议制定宪法条款，以便在宪法衰落的后果在政体中变得明显时生效。这篇文章是在《宪法的历史》和《宪法的历史》中讨论的，是关于《东方欧洲的宪法》的问题。《国家-联合国组织法》是一项关于效率的规定，它规定了各国的效率和效率，特别是各国的效率和效率，包括了各国的效率和效率。这篇文章阐述了如何在宪法规定的范围内解决这些问题。Il suggere,然后les网上particuliers essayent de dissoudre les contraintes constitutionnelles, la宪法devrait inclure,一个l起源meme, des规则d激活imposant de新式contraintes当某些evenements, surviennent revelent linsuffisance des contraintes anterieures。在这篇文章中，作者建议:“将一个人的前程看做是一个人的前程，将一个人的前程看做是一个人的前程，将一个人的前程看做是一个人的前程。”
{"title":"Lessons for Emerging European Constitutionalism from the United States Constitution: Trigger Rules","authors":"John O. McGinnis","doi":"10.2202/1145-6396.1002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2202/1145-6396.1002","url":null,"abstract":"This essay offers some lessons from the history of the United States Constitution for constitutions for emerging democracies in Eastern Europe. The United States Constitution declined in efficacy over time because special interests eroded its restraints on rent-seeking. This essay seeks to consider solutions to prevent constitutional decline. It suggests that since special interests will try to dissolve constitutional restraints, the original constitution should itself contain trigger rulers imposing new restraints when certain events occur that suggest the old restraints are weakening. Thus in this essay I suggest creating constitutional provisions to spring into effect when the consequences of constitutional decline become apparent in the polity.Cet article met en avant quelques leçons puisées dans lhistoire de la constitution américaine pour les constitutions des démocraties naissantes de lEurope Orientale. La constitution des Etats-Unis a perdu de son efficacité au fil du temps parce que les intérêts particuliers ont entamé les contraintes qui pesaient sur les activités de recherche de rente. Cet article essaye denvisager des solutions pour contrecarrer le déclin constitutionnel. Il suggère que, puisque les intérêts particuliers essayent de dissoudre les contraintes constitutionnelles, la constitution devrait inclure, à lorigine même, des règles dactivation imposant de nouvelles contraintes quand certains évènements qui surviennent révèlent linsuffisance des contraintes antérieures. Ainsi, dans cet article, lauteur suggère la création de dispositions constitutionnelles qui sont activées quand les conséquences du déclin constitutionnel sont apparentes au niveau politique.","PeriodicalId":231500,"journal":{"name":"Journal des �conomistes et des �tudes Humaines","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128492243","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper argues that the phenomenon of money reinforces the cognitive factors that switch on entrepreneurial alertness. More specifically, the introduction of money strengthens entrepreneu- rs sense of personal agency and hence the degree of their alertness. Personal agency expectations comprise self-efficacy (competence) beliefs and locus of control (contingency) beliefs. The emergence of money and a system of money prices enhances entrepreneurs perceived self-efficacy by improving their capacity to acquire the relevant knowledge needed to plan rationally. It can also strengthen entrepreneurs perceptions of the contingency of economic rewards upon entrepreneurial actions by removing problems arising from a lack of coincidence of wants and the indivisibility of commodities.Cet article suggère que le phénomène de la monnaie renforce les facteurs cognitifs qui déterminent la vigilance entrepreneuriale. Plus précisément lintroduction de la monnaie renforce le sens dinitiative personnelle des entrepreneurs et à partir de là leur degré de vigilance. Les anticipations de linitiative personnelle comprennent les croyances en lefficacité personnelle (la compétence) et les croyances en la maîtrise du lieu (la contingence). Lémergence de la monnaie et dun système de prix monétaires promeut le sentiment defficacité des entrepreneurs en améliorant leur capacité à acquérir la connaissance pertinente requise pour élaborer les plans rationnels. Elle peut aussi renforcer les perceptions entrepreneuriales du caractère contingent des gains économiques récompensant des actions entrepreneuriales en écartant les problèmes liés à labsence de la coïncidence des besoins et lindivisibilité des marchandises.
本文认为，金钱现象强化了开启创业警觉性的认知因素。更具体地说，货币的引入增强了企业家的个人能动性，从而提高了他们的警觉性。“个人代理”期望包括“自我效能”(能力)信念和“控制点”(偶然性)信念。货币和货币价格体系的出现提高了企业家的自我效能感，提高了他们获得合理计划所需的相关知识的能力。它还可以通过消除由于需求不一致和商品不可分割而产生的问题，加强企业家对企业家行动的经济回报的偶然性的认识。这篇文章建议，职业生涯职业生涯职业生涯职业生涯与职业生涯的关系，加强了对职业生涯的认知。加上prpracisacimement l ' introduction de la monnaie renence le sens d ' initiative personle de entrepreneurs和partient de lleslegrdedevigilance。Les anticipations de“l ' initiative personnelle”comprenent Les croyances en“l ' efficacit personnelle”(la compacementence)和Les croyances en“la matrise du lieu”(la contingency)。与此同时，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，与其他系统相比，它们的效率更高。Elle我们也船帆布les杜创业认知特征或有des收益资本再生产recompensant des行动创业en ecartant les问题是l缺席de la巧合des甚至et lindivisibilite marchandises。
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