Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154836
Jing Zhang, R. Light, Nicholas S. Johnston, M. Somekh
Widefield interferometry is a useful technique for the fast visualisation of low contrast objects. In addition, the spatial resolution of images is improved and quantitative measurement becomes possible with this technique.
{"title":"Widefield heterodyne interferometry with a novel custom 2D CMOS camera for biological imaging","authors":"Jing Zhang, R. Light, Nicholas S. Johnston, M. Somekh","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154836","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154836","url":null,"abstract":"Widefield interferometry is a useful technique for the fast visualisation of low contrast objects. In addition, the spatial resolution of images is improved and quantitative measurement becomes possible with this technique.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"14 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116679965","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154819
J. Richens, K. Vere, P. O'shea
Plasmonic-based biosensors offer huge potential as diagnostic instruments. The greatest benefit of such detection modalities is that they are label-free and thus only a single selective ligand is required for target detection, decreasing both protocol time and the required user proficiency. However, during technology development, the problems associated with using a detection system based upon an addition of mass need to be considered to ensure accurate target detection and quantification. This is particularly important in diagnostic applications as biomarkers are likely to be identified in complex bodily fluids including blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid or saliva. We have extended these analytical approaches by implementing molecular arrays that recognise panels of marker biomolecules to discriminate the presence and severity of Alzheimer's Disease.
{"title":"Optimisation of plasmonic-based biosensors for label-free imaging of molecular arrays; towards diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases","authors":"J. Richens, K. Vere, P. O'shea","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154819","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154819","url":null,"abstract":"Plasmonic-based biosensors offer huge potential as diagnostic instruments. The greatest benefit of such detection modalities is that they are label-free and thus only a single selective ligand is required for target detection, decreasing both protocol time and the required user proficiency. However, during technology development, the problems associated with using a detection system based upon an addition of mass need to be considered to ensure accurate target detection and quantification. This is particularly important in diagnostic applications as biomarkers are likely to be identified in complex bodily fluids including blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid or saliva. We have extended these analytical approaches by implementing molecular arrays that recognise panels of marker biomolecules to discriminate the presence and severity of Alzheimer's Disease.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122227900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154848
J. Chaplin, N. Krasnogor, Noah A. Russell
Research into molecular computation offers exciting possibilities for interfacing computation with biological systems. This could be achieved using light to switch photochromic molecules between states. For example, 6-Nitro-BIPS2 can be switched from a Spiropyran (SP) state to a Trans-Merocyanine (MC) state using UV photons while visible light switches from MC to SP. The MC state is also fluorescent. Modified spiropyrans targeted to proteins can improve imaging contrast3, alter enzyme activity4, alter protein interactions5 and switch vesicle permeability6.
{"title":"The effect of encapsulation on molecular computing efficiency","authors":"J. Chaplin, N. Krasnogor, Noah A. Russell","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154848","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154848","url":null,"abstract":"Research into molecular computation offers exciting possibilities for interfacing computation with biological systems. This could be achieved using light to switch photochromic molecules between states. For example, 6-Nitro-BIPS2 can be switched from a Spiropyran (SP) state to a Trans-Merocyanine (MC) state using UV photons while visible light switches from MC to SP. The MC state is also fluorescent. Modified spiropyrans targeted to proteins can improve imaging contrast3, alter enzyme activity4, alter protein interactions5 and switch vesicle permeability6.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"36 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129541581","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154825
K. Webb, Jing Zhang, M. Somekh
Epithelial tissues form the barrier between different fluid compartments throughout the body, lining and delineating the borders between tissues to control homeostasis and provide for the functions of secretion, absorption, and volume regulation. Key to these physiological roles is the transepithelial transport of fluid and solutes. Vectorial transport is possible due to the highly polarised cytoarchitecture, with different ion transporters and other proteins present in the apical vs basolateral membrane domains, which are separated by “tight junctions” which ring the lateral membranes of each cell. These separate the apical and basolateral compartments, providing intercellular adhesion and controlling permeation via the intercellular pathway. By varying the composition and function of the pools of transport proteins between these segregated membrane domains, directed transport is achieved thus promoting homeostasis. The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) lies behind the neural retina, forming the blood-retinal barrier and providing for the homeostasitic and biochemical support of the photoreceptors and other neuronal layers. Much is known of RPE physiology at the macroscopic level since dysregulation or pathology have profound consequences for the visual system. Lacking is the detailed knowledge of biophysical mechanisms and local intercompartmental dynamics by which fluid and solute transport is achieved and regulated at the cellular and subcellular level.
{"title":"Multimodal imaging of fluid transport in living epithelial sheets","authors":"K. Webb, Jing Zhang, M. Somekh","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154825","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154825","url":null,"abstract":"Epithelial tissues form the barrier between different fluid compartments throughout the body, lining and delineating the borders between tissues to control homeostasis and provide for the functions of secretion, absorption, and volume regulation. Key to these physiological roles is the transepithelial transport of fluid and solutes. Vectorial transport is possible due to the highly polarised cytoarchitecture, with different ion transporters and other proteins present in the apical vs basolateral membrane domains, which are separated by “tight junctions” which ring the lateral membranes of each cell. These separate the apical and basolateral compartments, providing intercellular adhesion and controlling permeation via the intercellular pathway. By varying the composition and function of the pools of transport proteins between these segregated membrane domains, directed transport is achieved thus promoting homeostasis. The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) lies behind the neural retina, forming the blood-retinal barrier and providing for the homeostasitic and biochemical support of the photoreceptors and other neuronal layers. Much is known of RPE physiology at the macroscopic level since dysregulation or pathology have profound consequences for the visual system. Lacking is the detailed knowledge of biophysical mechanisms and local intercompartmental dynamics by which fluid and solute transport is achieved and regulated at the cellular and subcellular level.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"2 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125012463","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154831
R. Light
Many scientific optical measurement problems require specialised processing, examples are phase stepping, pump probe experiments or speckle averaging. Many of these are carried out with a single photodetector or with conventional cameras. The ability to integrate custom electronics alongside photodetectors allows custom cameras to be developed that are well suited to these specialised techniques. These can provide on chip processing and adaptive responses to the incoming signals.
{"title":"Custom CMOS cameras for configurable and adaptive imaging","authors":"R. Light","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154831","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154831","url":null,"abstract":"Many scientific optical measurement problems require specialised processing, examples are phase stepping, pump probe experiments or speckle averaging. Many of these are carried out with a single photodetector or with conventional cameras. The ability to integrate custom electronics alongside photodetectors allows custom cameras to be developed that are well suited to these specialised techniques. These can provide on chip processing and adaptive responses to the incoming signals.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130027341","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154833
T. Wilson
The fundamental property, which any optical microscope that is to be used to finally produce three-dimensional images of a volume specimen must possess, is the ability to image efficiently (and infocus) only those regions the specimen that lie within a thin section in the focal region of the microscope. In order to image a three-dimensional volume of a thick specimen it is necessary to take a whole series of such thin optical sections as the specimen is moved axially through the focal region. There are many methods to produce optical sectioning of which the confocal optical system is just one. We shall review these methods and describe a particularly convenient method of implementation that uses white light illumination and real-time image formation and can lead, amongst other things, to enhanced optical sectioning.
{"title":"Optical sectioning and fast optical focussing in microscopy","authors":"T. Wilson","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154833","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154833","url":null,"abstract":"The fundamental property, which any optical microscope that is to be used to finally produce three-dimensional images of a volume specimen must possess, is the ability to image efficiently (and infocus) only those regions the specimen that lie within a thin section in the focal region of the microscope. In order to image a three-dimensional volume of a thick specimen it is necessary to take a whole series of such thin optical sections as the specimen is moved axially through the focal region. There are many methods to produce optical sectioning of which the confocal optical system is just one. We shall review these methods and describe a particularly convenient method of implementation that uses white light illumination and real-time image formation and can lead, amongst other things, to enhanced optical sectioning.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"106 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124026092","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154832
R. Light, Richard J. Smith, Nicholas S. Johnston, M. Somekh
In surface plasmon imaging, a sample is placed on a glass prism that has been coated with a metal film, usually gold. When illuminated at the appropriate angle, plasmons are generated in the gold surface and there is both a sharp dip in the reflectivity of the gold and a strong phase shift in the reflected light. The plasmon angle is very sensitive to the conditions on the gold surface, which makes it potentially very useful in label-free biological measurements, where the amount of a particular protein in a sample can be determined by how much binds to antibodies printed on the gold surface and changes the local surface properties.
{"title":"A custom CMOS camera for sensitive SPR measurement","authors":"R. Light, Richard J. Smith, Nicholas S. Johnston, M. Somekh","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154832","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154832","url":null,"abstract":"In surface plasmon imaging, a sample is placed on a glass prism that has been coated with a metal film, usually gold. When illuminated at the appropriate angle, plasmons are generated in the gold surface and there is both a sharp dip in the reflectivity of the gold and a strong phase shift in the reflected light. The plasmon angle is very sensitive to the conditions on the gold surface, which makes it potentially very useful in label-free biological measurements, where the amount of a particular protein in a sample can be determined by how much binds to antibodies printed on the gold surface and changes the local surface properties.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130712511","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154838
K. Suhling, P. Chung, J. Levitt
Fluorescence imaging techniques are powerful tools in the biological and biomedical sciences, because they are minimally invasive and can be applied to live cells and tissues. It is advantageous to exploit the many properties of fluorescence in imaging experiments.[1–3] We demonstrate a novel experimental arrangement for measurements of intracellular dynamics by simultaneous acquisition of fluorescence recovery curves (FRAP), fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) and fluorescence anisotropy imaging (FAIM). We have used this set-up to obtain the translational and rotational diffusion properties of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labelled proteins in living cells. This method allows extraction of fluorescence lifetimes, rotational correlation times and diffusion characteristics simultaneously and thus avoids excessive photobleaching or artefacts due to cell movement. It can also measure phenomena that each method on its own cannot measure, e.g. diffusing homo-dimers.
{"title":"Advances in time-resolved fluorescence microscopy: Simultaneous FRAP, FLIM and tr-FAIM to image rotational and translation diffusion in living cells","authors":"K. Suhling, P. Chung, J. Levitt","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154838","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154838","url":null,"abstract":"Fluorescence imaging techniques are powerful tools in the biological and biomedical sciences, because they are minimally invasive and can be applied to live cells and tissues. It is advantageous to exploit the many properties of fluorescence in imaging experiments.[1–3] We demonstrate a novel experimental arrangement for measurements of intracellular dynamics by simultaneous acquisition of fluorescence recovery curves (FRAP), fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) and fluorescence anisotropy imaging (FAIM). We have used this set-up to obtain the translational and rotational diffusion properties of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labelled proteins in living cells. This method allows extraction of fluorescence lifetimes, rotational correlation times and diffusion characteristics simultaneously and thus avoids excessive photobleaching or artefacts due to cell movement. It can also measure phenomena that each method on its own cannot measure, e.g. diffusing homo-dimers.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115291749","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154840
M. Mather
Cellular feedstocks underpin many Regenerative Medicine (RM) therapies. Suitable strategies for the large-scale manufacture are therefore required to ensure high quality RM products are produced consistently at an economically acceptable price. Allied to this is the need for measurement tools capable of characterising cell quality and its dependence on key manufacture parameters in-process. Currently, cell populations are routinely monitored to assess quality using conventional biological analysis (e.g. cell surface markers, gene expression). This approach is destructive, not suitable for in-process measurements and renders time course experiments impossible. Alternatively non-destructive approaches that assess cell morphology can also used, with light microscopy techniques (e.g. bright field, phase contrast imaging) being the primary methods. Often these microscopy techniques are combined with pre-treatment of cells with exogenous labels such as fluorescent markers. This can provide functional information but has the disadvantage that such cell modifications are invasive and potentially toxic to the cells. Label free approaches are also used and whilst this enables non-invasive monitoring of live cells in culture, such microscopy techniques are currently non-quantitative with characterisation fully dependent on the skills and experience of the operator. Image contrast and resolution are also often lacking making morphological assessments unreliable. Additionally, more complex parameters such as dynamic cell behaviour and cell-substrate interactions are needed to provide the necessary mechanistic insight to characterise cellular processes and as parameters for effective process design and quality control tools. This presentation will address the above issues through the development of a total internal reflection microscope (TIRM) to enable the quantitative study of cellular processes and live cell quality at high resolution and without the use of labels. TIRM is a non-fluorescent imaging technique which is based on the principle that an object with refractive index (n3) will scatter an evanescent field created when a light beam undergoes total internal reflection at an interface between two media with different refractive indices, such as glass (n1) and air (n2), where n3>n2. The key design considerations with respect to development of a TIRM instrument are discussed. In addition the application of TIRM as an optical imaging tool to non-invasively monitor the quality of cells in culture at higher resolution than traditional light microscopy (e.g. bright field and phase contrast imaging) to enable validation of manufacturing procedures in-process will be discussed.
{"title":"Label free assessment of live cell quality with total internal reflection microscopy","authors":"M. Mather","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154840","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154840","url":null,"abstract":"Cellular feedstocks underpin many Regenerative Medicine (RM) therapies. Suitable strategies for the large-scale manufacture are therefore required to ensure high quality RM products are produced consistently at an economically acceptable price. Allied to this is the need for measurement tools capable of characterising cell quality and its dependence on key manufacture parameters in-process. Currently, cell populations are routinely monitored to assess quality using conventional biological analysis (e.g. cell surface markers, gene expression). This approach is destructive, not suitable for in-process measurements and renders time course experiments impossible. Alternatively non-destructive approaches that assess cell morphology can also used, with light microscopy techniques (e.g. bright field, phase contrast imaging) being the primary methods. Often these microscopy techniques are combined with pre-treatment of cells with exogenous labels such as fluorescent markers. This can provide functional information but has the disadvantage that such cell modifications are invasive and potentially toxic to the cells. Label free approaches are also used and whilst this enables non-invasive monitoring of live cells in culture, such microscopy techniques are currently non-quantitative with characterisation fully dependent on the skills and experience of the operator. Image contrast and resolution are also often lacking making morphological assessments unreliable. Additionally, more complex parameters such as dynamic cell behaviour and cell-substrate interactions are needed to provide the necessary mechanistic insight to characterise cellular processes and as parameters for effective process design and quality control tools. This presentation will address the above issues through the development of a total internal reflection microscope (TIRM) to enable the quantitative study of cellular processes and live cell quality at high resolution and without the use of labels. TIRM is a non-fluorescent imaging technique which is based on the principle that an object with refractive index (n3) will scatter an evanescent field created when a light beam undergoes total internal reflection at an interface between two media with different refractive indices, such as glass (n1) and air (n2), where n3>n2. The key design considerations with respect to development of a TIRM instrument are discussed. In addition the application of TIRM as an optical imaging tool to non-invasively monitor the quality of cells in culture at higher resolution than traditional light microscopy (e.g. bright field and phase contrast imaging) to enable validation of manufacturing procedures in-process will be discussed.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"105 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121374381","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2011-12-01DOI: 10.1109/FOI.2011.6154821
M. Somekh, F. Hu, C. Chuang, C. See
Structured illumination microscopy (SIM) using grating excitation can be used to extend the bandwidth of fluorescent microscopy by approximately a factor of 2 in the linear regime. If some of the fluorescent molecules are saturated even greater improvements in resolution are possible; this may, however, lead to high levels of photobleaching and phototoxicity. In this paper we present preliminary results that show a simple grating structure separated by a propagation region (see figure 1) can improve the resolution by a far greater factor than this offering the opportunity for resolution close to 50nm. Our present results are proof of concept results on relatively low numerical aperture systems. The potential for the higher lateral resolution relies on the fact that (i) the grating structure does not depend on the illumination optics and can thus be finer than possible with a grating formed by illumination through the lens and (ii) the propagation region can be made from a material with high refractive index is possible with immersion oils.
{"title":"Proximity grating microscopy","authors":"M. Somekh, F. Hu, C. Chuang, C. See","doi":"10.1109/FOI.2011.6154821","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/FOI.2011.6154821","url":null,"abstract":"Structured illumination microscopy (SIM) using grating excitation can be used to extend the bandwidth of fluorescent microscopy by approximately a factor of 2 in the linear regime. If some of the fluorescent molecules are saturated even greater improvements in resolution are possible; this may, however, lead to high levels of photobleaching and phototoxicity. In this paper we present preliminary results that show a simple grating structure separated by a propagation region (see figure 1) can improve the resolution by a far greater factor than this offering the opportunity for resolution close to 50nm. Our present results are proof of concept results on relatively low numerical aperture systems. The potential for the higher lateral resolution relies on the fact that (i) the grating structure does not depend on the illumination optics and can thus be finer than possible with a grating formed by illumination through the lens and (ii) the propagation region can be made from a material with high refractive index is possible with immersion oils.","PeriodicalId":240419,"journal":{"name":"2011 Functional Optical Imaging","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2011-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126704074","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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